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Arbaizar B. Psiquiatria.com. 2011; 15:18.

http://hdl.handle.net/10401/4070

Psiquiatria.com ISSN: 1137-3148

2011 Arbaizar B, Llorca J

Revisin terica

A brief look of comparative anxiety disorders: from dogs

to humansEstudio comparativo de los trastornos de ansiedad entre los perros y los humanos

Beatriz Arbaizar1*, Javier Llorca2*

Resumen

Los trastornos de ansiedad son la patologa mental ms comn en los seres humanos, e incluyen

la ansiedad de separacin, las fobias especficas, y el trastorno obsesivo-compulsivo entre otros.En perros la ansiedad de separacin y las fobias a las tormentas y a los ruidos intensos son

relativamente frecuentes y parecen fenotpicamente similares a los que se ven en humanos. En

los perros como en los humanos con ansiedad de separacin o fobias se aprecian los mismos

fenmenos de activacin autonmica al encarar el estimulo fbico, tambin en las dos especies

el trastorno obsesivo-compulsivo esta caracterizado por conductas repetitivas; es ms parece

que comparten mecanismos neurobiolgicos similares como es la participacin del circuito

amigdalino, as como ciertos tipos de polimorfismos genticos implicados en el metabolismo de

los neurotransmisores. En ambas especies hay tambin una alta co-morbilidad entre los

diferentes trastornos de ansiedad. En humanos los alelos que confieren una elevada

susceptibilidad para los diferentes trastornos a menudo estn distribuidos irregularmente en la

poblacin; los perros domsticos han sido recientemente seleccionados en ms de 350subespecies ofreciendo la ventaja de la concentracin en la distribucin de los halotipos cara al

estudio de los diferentes polimorfismos asociados a determinados trastornos. Concluyendo las

similitudes en los fenotipos sugiere que el estudio de los trastornos de ansiedad en perros puede

ayudarnos a profundizar en el conocimiento sobre los trastornos de ansiedad en humanos, a la

vez que apunta hacia unos posibles mecanismos neurobiolgicos similares.

Palabras claves: Trastornos de ansiedad, fobias, estudios comparativos.

Abstract

Anxiety disorders are the most prevalent disorders in human beings. They include separation

anxiety disorder, specific phobias, compulsive disorders, and others. In dogs, separation anxietyand phobias -thunderstorm or noise phobias, for instance- are also a frequent condition, and

seem to be phenotypically similar to anxiety disorders in humans. Human beings and dogs with

separation anxiety or phobias share autonomic activation when facing the stimuli, while

compulsive disorders are characterized by repetitive behavior in both species. Moreover, there

seem to be certain similarities in the neurologic mechanisms involved, such as amygdale

circuitry, and also in some genetic polymorphisms involved in the metabolism of neuro-

transmitters. In both species, a high co-morbidity occurs within the respective groups of anxiety

disorders. Alleles that elevate the susceptibility to certain diseases in humans are often

irregularly distributed. Domestic dogs have been recently selected in over 350 breeds, giving rise

to a narrow haplotype structure which is an added advantage in the study of the different

polymorphisms associated with several disorders. In conclusion, similarities in phenotype

suggest that a study of anxiety disorders in dogs would allow a deeper knowledge of anxiety


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disorders in human beings, and that their respective anxiety disorder group could have the same

neurobiological underlying mechanisms.

Palabras claves:Anxiety disorders, phobias, comparative studies.

Recibido: 19/04/2011 Aceptado: 23/04/2011 Publicado: 26/07/2011

* Correspondencia: [email protected], [email protected]

1 Unidad de Salud Mental "Lpez Albo - II", C/ Vargas-57, 39010-Santander, Spain.

2 CIBER Epidemiologa y Salud Pblica (CIBERESP), Spain; Division of Epidemiology and Computational

Biology, University of Cantabria, Facultad de Medicina, Avda. Herrera Oria s/n, 39011-Santander, Spain;

and IFIMAV, Santander, Spain.


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1. Introduction

Anxiety disorders are the most common disorders in human adults, adolescents and children

[1]; they include panic disorder, agoraphobia, social phobia, specific phobias, obsessive-

compulsive disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, separation anxiety disorder and others. An

increased physiological reactivity when facing novel stimuli or challenging situations is a

common epiphenomenum to phobic stimuli; while "behavioral inhibition" is a well established

risk factor for anxiety disorders, and might be a manifestation of a biological predisposition.

Dogs also suffer anxiety disorders; furthermore, separation anxiety, thunderstorm phobia, noise

phobia and compulsive behavior also seem to be the most common diseases in dogs [2]. Anxiety

disorders appear to be phenotypically similar in dogs and human beings [3]; therefore, it could

be expected that studying anxiety disorders in dogs will enlighten this group of diseases in

humans.

In this paper, we revised the similarities and differences in anxiety disorders between humanbeings and dogs.

2. Diagnostic

2.1 Anxiety disorder in humans

Separation Anxiety Disorder (SAD) is defined as the development of excessive anxiety

concerning separation from home or from those the individual is attached to [4].

Specific phobias are divided [4] into:

Animal type Natural environmental type (heights, storms, water)

Blood-injury type

Situational type (elevators, airplanes)

Other types (like loud sounds in children)

Obsessive-compulsive Disorder (OCD) is composed of obsessions: persistent thoughts, impulses

or images. Compulsions are repetitive behaviors or mental acts [4].

2.2 Canine separation anxiety

Dogs suffering separation anxiety exhibit considerable distress when they are separated from

their owner or are left alone. Canine responses to this comprise elimination, vocalization,

destruction, increased or decreased psychomotor activity, withdrawal, self-mutilation [3].

Separation anxiety can be the cause of some aggressive behaviors in order to prevent the owner's

departure. Dogs reach social maturity within a range of 12-36 months; separation anxiety can

appear in dogs at any age, although separation anxiety diagnosis in dogs does not occur until 6


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months because some separation distress over the weaning epoch is normal [5]. The median age

of the onset of separation anxiety in dogs is over 1.5 years [6].

2.3 Canine thunderstorm and noise phobias

Dogs with thunderstorm and noise phobia present in front of the stimulus or the anticipated

stimulus the classical reaction of fear with both physiological and behavior signs of anxiety: 1)

physiologic signs of autonomic activation, such as increased respiratory and heart rates,

increased salivation, gastrointestinal disturbances, and 2) a behavior response usually

associated with escape, avoidance or defensiveness (e.g. restlessness, paralysis, pacing, circling)

[5].

2.4 Canine compulsive behavior

Canine OCD includes repetitive ritualistic behaviors like tail-chasing, pica, self-mutilation, hair-

biting, etc. Compulsive behaviors usually appear in dogs with social maturity. Pica is one of the

most frequent compulsive behaviors in dogs; it is present when the dog chooses objects without

alimentary values as the main activity disregarding other activities [2]. The cognitive aspect of

OCD cannot be evaluated in dogs. Compulsive behavior is most often found in certain dog

breeds such as bullterriers and similar breeds [3].

3. Epidemiology

3.1 Anxiety disorder in humans

The SAD prevalence rate is about 3.5%. The rate of specific phobia in humans is about 10%. The

OCD rate is about 1.7%. The data supporting that anxiety disorders are a unique category are the

high comorbidity between the different anxiety disorders; in fact, Separation Anxiety Disorder

can predict future anxiety disorders [7]. Anxiety disorders have a high risk of concurrence [8];

controlled studies have shown an association between Co2 hypersensitivity with SAD and Panic

Disorder(PD) [9][10]. It seems to suggest that the two affections can share the same latent factor

that produces both phenotypes [10].

SAD is mainly a diagnostic of children and adolescents, because it has to occur before 18 years

old; however, it has been recently identified at older ages [11]; specific phobia in human beings

is a diagnostic of middle childhood; compulsive behavior often appears in teenagers and mild

life and its course is often chronic [3].

3.2 Canine epidemiology

Separation anxiety in dogs seems a common disorder; it is present in about 14-17% of dogs that

are brought to veterinary clinics in USA, and about 20% in United Kingdom [5]. Dogs that come

from a single owner seem to be 2.5 times more likely to suffer separation anxiety than those thatcome from a home with multiple owners [12].


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88% of dogs with noise phobia and 86% of dogs with thunderstorm phobia also develop

separation anxiety; dogs with separation anxiety are more likely to present noise phobia (63%),

thunderstorm phobia (52%); a dog with a thunderstorm phobia has a 90% probability of

experiencing noise phobia; and the probability that a dog with noise phobia would have a co-occurring thunderstorm phobia is 76% [13]. The owners of dogs that present less disruptive

behaviors as response to stress (e.g. withdrawal, inactivity, or salivation) would be unlikely to be

seeking help [13]. The most disruptive behaviors may adversely affect the owner-dog bond, with

the dog ending in a shelter or even being euthanized.

Separation anxiety in dogs may occur at any age, the median age of onset in dogs being over 1.5

years [6]; 40% of thunderstorm phobia diagnostics in dogs are made earlier, within the first year

of life, and only 10% are made in dogs of 5 or more years of age [14]. Compulsive behaviors

usually appear in dogs with social maturity.

4. Etiology

4.1 Etiology in humans

Anxiety in human beings and dogs appears as a multifactorial disorder [3]. Sometimes, a

compulsive behavior has several mechanisms (i.e.: disorders are multicausal) [3]; on the other

hand, the same neurochemical factors in the presence of different environmental factors can

display different phenotypes (i.e.: causes are non specific) [3].

4.1.1 Biological model

Genetic contributions seem to play only a moderate role in anxiety disorders [15]. Some studies

propose that persons can exhibit behavioral inhibition when facing new people and situations;

these persons display similar temperamental aspects to patients that will develop anxiety

disorders [7]. Moreover, functional Magnetic Resonance Image studies have shown

hyperreactivity of the amygdale and its projections to the striatum, hypothalamus, sympathetic

chain and cardiovascular system in young and teenagers with behavioral inhibition [16].

Neurobiological factors: Some studies have shown that children experiencing parental death

and separation /desertion have a greater likelihood of presenting anxiety disorders or

depressive symptoms. However, separation/desertion is associated with other factors (forexample, neurobiological factors like a family history of anxiety and depressive disorders, and

social factors such as low socio-economical status) which can themselves increase the

probability of anxiety disorders; therefore, parental death may be the specific risk factor for

anxiety and depressive symptoms [17].

Neuroanatomical contributions suggest there is an important role played by amygdale and its

circuitry in the development of conditioning fear [18]. Neurochemical contributions would also

be involved in the development of anxiety disorder; e.g.: some alterations in serotonin,

norepinephrine, dopamine, and -aminobutyric acid [19]. Polymorphisms involved in the 5-HT

system, particularly the 5-HTTLPR genotype in the 5-HT transporter polymorphic region, NA

polymorphisms and some genotypes involved in DA function, specifically genes which code D2and D4 receptors, seem involved in the avoidance process [20][21].


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4.1.2 Learning Theory

Raschman's theory suggests three, often overlapping, learning experiences in the developmentof phobias: (a) aversive classical conditioning, (b) modeling, and (c) instruction/information

transfer; however, in some phobias, such as water phobia, these mechanisms cannot be found in

most of the patients affected. Animal phobias are very common (e.g. phobias to spiders, snakes,

or dogs); most people who develop an animal phobia have not had a previous traumatic

experience. The learning model proposes the concept of latent inhibition: people approach a

new stimulus with a prior history of associations involving the previous stimulus, and these

previous associations are determining depending on whether subsequent conditioning occurs or

not (neo-conditioning theories) [22].

4.1.3 Cognitive model

The cognitive model offers the cognitive vulnerability theory as a factor for animal phobias; in

this, the perception of the animal as uncontrollable, unpredictable, dangerous, and disgusting

may have a role in the phobia development [22].

4.1.4 Evolutionary approach

Evolutionary psychologists think that virtually universal behaviors, such as fear of snakes and

spiders, are the result of evolved adaptations. The evolutionary point of view suggests that

specific phobias, such as water, separation, spiders, heights, etc., can emerge as advantages toour prehistoric ancestor's survivorship [23].

4.2 Canine etiology

4.2.1 Biological model

Riva et al [24] found higher levels of DA and 5HT in plasma and lower levels of 5HT in platelets

in dogs with anxiety disorders.

Thunderstorm phobic dogs present an increased heart rate and also a hypothalamic-pituitary-

adrenal (HPT) activation in response to stress [25]. The owners do not present HPT activation

and the dog response does not seem to be influenced by the owner-dog quality relation, but the

presence in the household of other dogs seems to facilitate the lower reactivity and the fastest

HPT recovery [26]. Thunderstorm phobia is usually associated, as in human beings, to other

anxiety disorders [13].

4.2.2 Selection approach

The domestic dog, Canis lupus familiaris, comes from the gray wolf, Canis lupus. Thedomestication of the gray wolf took place between 15,000 and 40,000 years ago in central Asia.


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Dog quickly spread around the world [27]. Dogs present some behaviors and dispositions

inherited from wolves, but many of their behaviors and predispositions have been constituted by

mankind's selective breeding [28]. Dogs have shown that they have the ability to learn by simple

reinforcement like classical and operant conditioning and also by observationimitation [28].

There are at least 350 breeds throughout the world; most of them being developed in Europe in

the last 330 years. Dogs present a wide phenotypic variation as a result of restricted gene flow

and generations of high artificial selection for several specific activities such as hunting,

sheepdog, etc [29].

Affiliative behavior facilitates proximity and intimate social interaction. Social behavior in dogs

reflects their descent from wolves which have a highly structured social organization;

domestication has probably selected these social skills that are very important for the success of

the species as is cohesion [30]. The domestication process has selected characteristics of

juvenile behavior and dependence on parental figures; as a result, adult dogs also present these

behavioral trends [31].

Alleles that promote disease susceptibility are usually irregularly distributed in human beings.

Nevertheless, domestic dogs have been recently selected in breeds, which has caused a very

restrained haplotype structure; the study of different polymorphisms in dogs associated to a

particular disorder can be an advantage; furthermore, some disorder susceptibilities are

associated with several dog breeds (i.e.: compulsive disorder, cardiomyopathies, dislocation of

the hip) [27].

4.2.3 Environment factors

Some factors that can promote separation anxiety can be: strong attachment to the owner,

separation from the owner, and moving house. Dogs that come from a shelter appear to be more

prone to developing separation anxiety than those from breeders [32]. Primary attachment and

its consecutive bonding in mammals establishes a secure base where the dogs experience self-

confidence and can explore their environment [33]; feelings of security and comfort later come

up against opposite needs -such as contact with other colleagues- and a more independent

behavior progressively emerges [34]. The persistence of this primary attachment and its

immaturity characteristics beyond puberty can give rise to separation anxiety. Secondary

attachment can occur at any age in certain circumstances such as, for example, the loss of the

primary attachment figure [35]. Dogs have probably been selected on the basis of their

affectionate and socially dependent behavior [36], although owners can unwittingly facilitate

dependent behavior by reinforcement of care-soliciting behaviors [37].

Separation anxiety in dogs could be currently facilitated by our lifestyle: long owner work days,

single-individual, scarce interdog interactions [5]. Dogs could exhibit primary hyperattachment

with the owner if they maintain the puppy-like behavior patterns and a secondary

hyperattachment when, after developing as normal dogs, a change such as owner long-absence

or moving to a new house is produced [5]. Separation anxiety in dogs seems to have an

environmental factor link to the familiarity of the place: dogs placed in their usual environment

express vocalizations of distress, which is inhibited when in an unknown place [38]. The

compulsive behaviors in humans also seem to be inhibited in unknown places.


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5. Treatment

In both humans and dogs, anxiety disorders seem to have a good therapeutic response to

behavioralcognitive therapy and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI) [3].

Clomipramine has been used in the treatment of separation anxiety, OCD, and noise phobia

with good results [39].

Behavior treatment in dogs includes: ignoring attention-seeking behavior, stimulating

independent behavior, reducing physical contact, and breaking the bond [40].

6. Discussion

Transmission of cultural knowledge requires the ability to identify relevant information to

retain, and selectively imitation of other partner skills. Dogs, like children, can exhibit

inferential selective imitation [41].

Curiously, one of the most common fears of children is that of loud noises [42]. The

characteristics of the noise, such as its unpredictability, appear as important factors in noise and

thunderstorm phobias in dogs [13], and are probably an important factor in child noise phobias.

The affiliative behavior selected during the domestication process of dogs promotes dependence

of parental figures, and there could be a certain similarity with the behavioral inhibition

proposed as a temperamental factor in the development of anxiety disorders in humans.

One of the specific skills that allowed dogs to adapt and become integrated in human social

groups is that they are able to recognize behavioral features characterizing human visual

attention [43][44]. Perhaps the study of this could help us to understand why dog behavior can

be used as an analog model of corresponding human behavior [45] and, specifically, why phobia

in dogs is so similar to phobia in humans.

Summarizing, anxiety disorders in dogs and human beings not only seem analogous but

probably homologous. It seems that anxiety disorders in humans and dogs are, in fact,

multifactorial: anxiety disorders in humans and separation anxiety, noise and thunderstorm

phobia could have the same neurobiological underlying mechanisms and different phenotypes

as a result of different environments and other factors.

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Correspondencia:

Javier Llorca

Facultad de Medicina

Avda. Herrera Oria s/n

39011 Santander. Espaa.

Tel. 34-942201993

Fax. 34-942201903

E-mail: [email protected]

Cite este artculo de la siguiente forma (estilo de Vancouver):

Arbaizar B, Llorca J. A brief look of comparative anxiety disorders: from dogs to humans.

Psiquiatria.com [Internet]. 2011 [citado 26 Jul 2011];15:18. Disponible en:


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