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Pasado (tiempo)

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Para otros usos de este trmino, vasePasado (desambiguacin).

Generalmente se utiliza el trmino pasado para referirse al conjunto de sucesos que ya han

tenido lugar.

Enfsicase denomina pasado (causal) de unsucesoA, alconjuntode todos los puntos delespacio-tiempoque puedan influir en lo que ocurre en A.

Enmecnica clsicael pasado de un suceso no depende de su posicin espacial siendo

funcin nicamente de su posicin en eltiempo, por lo que el pasado de un suceso Acoincide con el de todos los sucesos que comparten la misma coordenada temporal con A.

Enrelatividad especialel pasado de un suceso A es equivalente a todos los puntos delespacio-tiempo desde los que podra venir un rayo deluzque pase por el punto A. En un

diagrama de espacio-tiempo el pasado de un suceso se ve como unconopor lo que tambin

se le denominacono de luzpasado. Cada uno de los sucesos pertenecientes al cono de luzpasado del punto A, ocurre antes que A para todos los observadores.

El pasado es tambin objeto de estudio por muchas otras ciencias a parte de la fsica tales

como lahistoria, elpsicoanlisis, laarqueologa,arqueoastronoma,filologa,geologa,

paleontologa,paleobotnica,paleoclimatologao lacosmologa.

The past tense(abbreviatedPST) is agrammatical tensethat places an action or situation

in the past of the current moment (in anabsolute tensesystem), or prior to some specifiedtime that may be in the speaker's past, present, or future (in arelative tensesystem).[1]

Notall languages mark verbs for the past tense (Mandarin Chinese, for example, does not); in

some languages, the grammatical expression of past tense is combined with the expression

ofmoodand/oraspect(seetenseaspectmood). Some languages that mark for past tensedo so byinflectingthe verb, while others do so by usingauxiliary verbs(and some do

both).
http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasado_%28tiempo%29#mw-headhttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasado_%28tiempo%29#mw-headhttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasado_%28tiempo%29#mw-headhttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasado_%28tiempo%29#p-searchhttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasado_%28tiempo%29#p-searchhttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasado_%28tiempo%29#p-searchhttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasado_%28desambiguaci%C3%B3n%29http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasado_%28desambiguaci%C3%B3n%29http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasado_%28desambiguaci%C3%B3n%29http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%ADsicahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%ADsicahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%ADsicahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fen%C3%B3menohttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fen%C3%B3menohttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fen%C3%B3menohttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjuntohttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjuntohttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjuntohttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espacio-tiempohttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espacio-tiempohttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mec%C3%A1nica_cl%C3%A1sicahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mec%C3%A1nica_cl%C3%A1sicahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mec%C3%A1nica_cl%C3%A1sicahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiempohttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiempohttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiempohttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relatividad_especialhttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relatividad_especialhttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relatividad_especialhttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luzhttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luzhttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luzhttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cono_%28geometr%C3%ADa%29http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cono_%28geometr%C3%ADa%29http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cono_%28geometr%C3%ADa%29http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cono_de_luzhttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cono_de_luzhttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cono_de_luzhttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psicoan%C3%A1lisishttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psicoan%C3%A1lisishttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psicoan%C3%A1lisishttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arqueolog%C3%ADahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arqueolog%C3%ADahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arqueolog%C3%ADahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arqueoastronom%C3%ADahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arqueoastronom%C3%ADahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arqueoastronom%C3%ADahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filolog%C3%ADahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filolog%C3%ADahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filolog%C3%ADahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geolog%C3%ADahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geolog%C3%ADahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geolog%C3%ADahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleontolog%C3%ADahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleontolog%C3%ADahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleobot%C3%A1nicahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleobot%C3%A1nicahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleobot%C3%A1nicahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoclimatolog%C3%ADahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoclimatolog%C3%ADahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoclimatolog%C3%ADahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmolog%C3%ADahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmolog%C3%ADahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmolog%C3%ADahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_glossing_abbreviationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_glossing_abbreviationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_glossing_abbreviationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_tensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_tensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_tensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_tensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_tensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_tensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relative_tensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relative_tensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relative_tensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#cite_note-Comrie_tense-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#cite_note-Comrie_tense-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#cite_note-Comrie_tense-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandarin_Chinesehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandarin_Chinesehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandarin_Chinesehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tense%E2%80%93aspect%E2%80%93moodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tense%E2%80%93aspect%E2%80%93moodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tense%E2%80%93aspect%E2%80%93moodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tense%E2%80%93aspect%E2%80%93moodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tense%E2%80%93aspect%E2%80%93moodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tense%E2%80%93aspect%E2%80%93moodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tense%E2%80%93aspect%E2%80%93moodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auxiliary_verbshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auxiliary_verbshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auxiliary_verbshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auxiliary_verbshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tense%E2%80%93aspect%E2%80%93moodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandarin_Chinesehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#cite_note-Comrie_tense-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relative_tensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_tensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_tensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_glossing_abbreviationshttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmolog%C3%ADahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoclimatolog%C3%ADahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleobot%C3%A1nicahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleontolog%C3%ADahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geolog%C3%ADahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filolog%C3%ADahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arqueoastronom%C3%ADahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arqueolog%C3%ADahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psicoan%C3%A1lisishttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cono_de_luzhttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cono_%28geometr%C3%ADa%29http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luzhttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relatividad_especialhttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiempohttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mec%C3%A1nica_cl%C3%A1sicahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espacio-tiempohttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjuntohttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fen%C3%B3menohttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%ADsicahttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasado_%28desambiguaci%C3%B3n%29http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasado_%28tiempo%29#p-searchhttp://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasado_%28tiempo%29#mw-head


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Contents

[hide]

1 European languageso 1.1 Germanic languages

1.1.1 English 1.1.2 German 1.1.3 Dutch

o 1.2 Non-Germanic Indo-European languages 1.2.1 French

2 African languages 3 Asian languages 4 The Americas 5 New Guinea 6 Creole languages

o 6.1 Belizean Creoleo 6.2 Singaporean English Creoleo 6.3 Hawaiian Creole Englisho 6.4 Haitian Creole

7 References 8 External links

[edit] European languages

[edit] Germanic languages

The European continent is heavily dominated byIndo-European languages, all of whichhave a past tense. In some cases the tense is formedinflectionallyas in English see/saw or

walk/walkedand as in theFrenchimperfectform, and sometimes it is formed

periphrastically, as in the Frenchpass composform. Further, all of the non-Indo-

European languages in Europe, such asBasque,Hungarian, andFinnish, also have a pasttense.

[edit]English

In English, the so-calledsimple pastform, sometimes called thepreterite, is a true tense inthat its use always places the action in the past.

[1]Thepresent perfectform is anaspectthat

relates the past to the present; it specifies a present state that results from past action, and assuch it is a form of present tense even though it makes reference to past action.

[2]It can be

altered to move the time that the state is experienced to the past. The other basic form ofEnglish verbs is theprogressive aspectform, which shows ongoing action; this too can be

altered to place the action in the past. English also has two forms, one of them unique to the

past, that indicate pasthabitualaction.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#European_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#European_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Germanic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Germanic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Germanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Germanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Dutchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Dutchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Non-Germanic_Indo-European_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Non-Germanic_Indo-European_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Frenchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Frenchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#African_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#African_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Asian_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Asian_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#The_Americashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#The_Americashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#New_Guineahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#New_Guineahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Creole_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Creole_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Belizean_Creolehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Belizean_Creolehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Singaporean_English_Creolehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Singaporean_English_Creolehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Hawaiian_Creole_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Hawaiian_Creole_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Haitian_Creolehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Haitian_Creolehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#External_linkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#External_linkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Past_tense&action=edit&section=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Past_tense&action=edit&section=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Past_tense&action=edit&section=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Past_tense&action=edit&section=2http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Past_tense&action=edit&section=2http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Past_tense&action=edit&section=2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-European_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-European_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-European_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperfecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperfecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperfecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periphrastichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periphrastichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basque_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basque_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basque_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungarian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungarian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungarian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finnish_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finnish_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finnish_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Past_tense&action=edit&section=3http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Past_tense&action=edit&section=3http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Past_tense&action=edit&section=3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_pasthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_pasthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_pasthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preteritehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preteritehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preteritehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#cite_note-Comrie_tense-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#cite_note-Comrie_tense-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#cite_note-Comrie_tense-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Present_perfecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Present_perfecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Present_perfecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progressive_aspecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progressive_aspecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progressive_aspecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitual_aspecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitual_aspecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitual_aspecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitual_aspecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progressive_aspecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Present_perfecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#cite_note-Comrie_tense-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preteritehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_pasthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Past_tense&action=edit&section=3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finnish_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungarian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basque_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periphrastichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperfecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-European_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Past_tense&action=edit&section=2http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Past_tense&action=edit&section=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#External_linkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Haitian_Creolehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Hawaiian_Creole_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Singaporean_English_Creolehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Belizean_Creolehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Creole_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#New_Guineahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#The_Americashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Asian_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#African_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Frenchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Non-Germanic_Indo-European_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Dutchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Germanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#Germanic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense#European_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tense


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The simple past is formed forregular verbsby adding -dor edto the root of a word.Examples: He walked to the store, or They danced all night. A negation is produced by

adding did notand putting the verb in its infinitive form. Example: He did not walk to the

store. Question sentences are started with didas in Did he walk to the store?The simple

past is used for describing acts that have already been concluded, regardless of whether

they took placehabituallyor are viewed as asingle occurrence seen as a unit(but not if

they are viewed as having occurred continuously). It is commonly used in storytelling.

The past progressive is formed by using a simple past form ofto be (was or were) and themain verbspresent participle:He was going to church. This form indicates that an action

was continuously ongoing. By inserting notbefore the main verb a negation is achieved.

Example: He was not going to church. A question is formed by fronting the simple past

form ofto be as in Was he going?.

The past habitual can be formed in one of two ways. One construction is formed by usedto plus the bare form of the main verb (or, technically and equivalently, by usedplus the

to-infinitiveof the main verb). With an action verb it indicates that something occurred

repetitively, as in I used to go there, while with astative verbit indicates that a state wascontinuously in effect, as in I used to belong to that club. The used to form can be used

whether or not the specific time frame of the action is specified (I used to go there; I used

to go there every Friday in June). The negation of this form is exemplified by I used not to

go there, although in informal usage I didn't use to go there is frequently heard. The

interrogative form Used you to go there?is rare; the informal alternative Did you use to go

there?is sometimes heard.

The other past habitual form uses theauxiliary verbwould(which has other uses as well).

For example, Last June I would go there dailyconveys repetitive action. When this form is

used, it must be accompanied by an explicit time frame (so for example I would go there.

does not occur unless the time frame has already been specified). This form is negated as

in Last June I would not go there daily, and it is made interrogative as in Last June, would

you go there daily?.

The past perfect is formed by combining the simple past form ofto have with the pastparticiple form of the main verb: We had shouted. This form conveys that an action

occurred before a specified time in the past, so it is actually a "past of the past" tense. A

negation is achieved by including notafter had: You had not spoken. Questions in past

perfect always start with had: Had he laughed?

The past perfect progressive is formed by had(the simple past ofto have), been (the pastparticiple ofto be) and the present participle of the main verb: You had been waiting. This

form describes action which happened in continuous fashion prior to some time in the

past. For negation, notis included before been: I had not been waiting. A question

sentence is formed by starting with had: Had she been waiting?If emphasis is put on the

duration of an action that continued to the reference time in the past, since andforare

signal words for the past perfect progressive: We had been waiting at the airport since the

9 P.M. flight; We had been waiting there for three hours.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regular_verbhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regular_verbhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regular_verbhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitual_aspecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitual_aspecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitual_aspecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfective_aspecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfective_aspecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfective_aspecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Present_participlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Present_participlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Present_participlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/To-infinitivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/To-infinitivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stative_verbhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stative_verbhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stative_verbhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auxiliary_verbhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auxiliary_verbhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auxiliary_verbhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auxiliary_verbhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stative_verbhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/To-infinitivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Present_participlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfective_aspecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitual_aspecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regular_verb


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[edit]German

Germanuses two forms for the past tense.

The preterite (Prteritum) (called the "imperfect" in older grammar books, but this, aborrowing from Latin terminology, ill describes it.)

The perfect (Perfekt)In SouthGermany,AustriaandSwitzerland, the preterite is mostly used solely in writing,for example in stories. Use in speech is regarded as snobbish and thus very uncommon.

South German dialects, such as the Bavarian dialect, as well asYiddish, and Swiss German

have no preterite, but only perfect constructs.

In certain regions, a few specific verbs are used in the preterite, for instance the modal

verbs and the verbs haben (have) and sein (be).

Es gab einmal ein kleines Mdchen, das Rotkppchen hie. (There was once a small girlwho was calledLittle Red Riding Hood.)

In speech and informal writing, the Perfektis used (e.g., Ich habe dies und das gesagt. (Isaid this and that)).

However, in the colloquial language of North Germany, there is still a very importantdifference between the preterite and theperfect, and both tenses are consequently very

common. The preterite is used for past actions when the focus is on the action, whilst the

present perfect is used for past actions when the focus is on the present state of the subjectas a result of a previous action. This is somewhat similar to the English usage of the

preterite and the present perfect.

Preterite: "Heute frh kam mein Freund." (my friend came early in the morning, and he isbeing talked about strictly in the past)

Perfect: "Heute frh istmein Freund gekommen." (my friend came early in the morning,but he is being talked about in the present)

[edit]Dutch

Dutchalso has 2 main past tenses:

onvoltooid verleden tijd, which matches the English simple past and the German preterite,for example: Gisteren was ik daar("I was there yesterday").

voltooid tegenwoordige tijd, a present tense with the meaning of perfect. This form ismade by combining a form ofzijn ("to be") or hebben ("to have") with the notional verb,

for example: Gisteren ben ik daargeweest. This also means "I was there yesterday", but
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just as it is the case for English constructions with the present perfect simple, this kind of

formulation puts more emphasis on the "being finished"-aspect.

[edit] Non-Germanic Indo-European languages

In non-GermanicIndo-European languages, past marking is typically combined with adistinction betweenperfectiveandimperfectiveaspect, with the former reserved for singlecompleted actions in the past.Frenchfor instance, has an imperfect tense form similar to

that of German but used only for past habitual or past progressive contexts like "I used

to..." or "I was doing...". Similar patterns extend across most languages of the Indo-European family right through to theIndic languages.

Unlike other Indo-European languages, inSlavic languagestense is independent ofaspect,withimperfectiveandperfectiveaspects being indicated instead by means of prefixes, stem

changes, orsuppletion. In manyWest SlavicandEast Slaviclanguages, theearly Slavic

past tenses have largely merged into a single past tense. In both West and East Slavic, verbs

in the past tense are conjugated forgender(masculine, feminine, neuter) andnumber(singular, plural).

[edit]French

Frenchhas numerous forms of the past tense including but not limited to:

Past perfective (pass compos) e.g.J'ai mang (I ate, using the form but not the meaningofI have eaten)

Past imperfective (imparfait) e.g.Je mangeais (I was eating) Past historic or Simple past (pass simple) e.g.Je mangeai(I ate) (literary only) Pluperfect (Plus que parfait) e.g.J'avais mang (I had eaten [before another event in the

past])

Recent past (pass recent) e.g.Je viens de manger(I just ate)[edit] African languages

Whilst inSemitic languagestripartite non-past/past imperfective/past perfective systems

similar to those of most Indo-European languages are found, in the rest of Africa pasttenses have very different forms from those found in European languages.Berber

languageshave only the perfective/imperfective distinction and lack a past imperfect.

Many non-BantuNigerCongo languagesof West Africa do not mark past tense at all but

instead have a form ofperfectderived from a word meaning "to finish". Others, such asEwe, distinguish only betweenfutureandnon-future.
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In complete contrast,Bantu languagessuch asZuluhave not only a past tense, but also a

less remoteproximal tense which is used for very recent past events and is never

interchangeable with the ordinary past form. These languages also differ substantially fromEuropean languages in coding tense withprefixesinstead of such suffixes as English -ed.

Other, smaller language families of Africa follow quite regional patterns. Thus theSudaniclanguagesof East Africa and adjacent Afro-Asiatic families are part of the same area with

inflectional past-marking that extends into Europe, whereas more westerly Nilo-Saharanlanguages often do not have past tense.

[edit] Asian languages

Past tenses are found in a variety of Asian languages. These include the Indo-EuropeanlanguagesRussianin North Asia andPersian,Tajik,Urdu, andHindiin Southwest and

South Asia; theTurkic languagesTurkish,Turkmen,Kazakh, andUyghurof Southwest

and Central Asia;Arabicin Southwest Asia;Japanese; theDravidian languagesof India;

theUralic languagesof Russia;Mongolic; andKorean. Languages inEast AsiaandSoutheast Asiatypically do not distinguish tense; inMandarin Chinese, for example, the

particlele when used immediately after a verb instead indicatesperfective aspect.

In parts of islands in Southeast Asia, even less distinction is made, for instance in

Indonesianand some otherAustronesian languages. Past tenses, do, however, exist in most

Oceanic languages.

[edit] The Americas

AmongNative American languagesthere is a split between complete absence of past

marking (especially common in Mesoamerica and the Pacific Northwest) and very complextense marking with numerous specialised remoteness distinctions, as found for instance in

Athabaskan languagesand a few languages of the Amazon Basin. Some of these tenses canhave specialised mythological significance and uses.

A number of Native American languages like Northern Paiute stand in contrast to European

notions of tense because they always userelative tense, which means time relative to a

reference point that may not coincide with the time an utterance is made.

[edit] New Guinea

Papuan languagesof New Guinea almost always have remoteness distinctions in the past

tense (though none are as elaborate as some native American languages), whilst indigenousAustralian languagesusually have a single past tense without remoteness distinctions.
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[edit] Creole languages

Creole languagestend to make tense marking optional, and when tense is marked invariantpre-verbal markers are used.[3]

[edit] Belizean Creole

InBelizean Creole, past tense marking is optional and is rarely used if a semantic temporalmarker such asyestudeh "yesterday" is present.

[edit] Singaporean English Creole

Singaporean English Creole (Singlish) optionally marks the past tense, most often in

irregular verbs (e.g., go went) and regular verbs like acceptwhich require an extrasyllable for the past tense suffix -ed.

[edit] Hawaiian Creole English

Hawaiian Creole English[4]

optionally marks the past tense with the invariant pre-verbal

marker wen or bin (especially older speakers) or haed(especially on the island Kauai). (Ai

wen si om "I saw him";Ai bin klin ap mai ples for da halade "I cleaned up my place for the

holiday";De haed plei BYU laes wik"They played BYU last week"). The past habitual

marker isyustu (Yo mada yustu tink so "Your mother used to think so").

Linguistic prescription

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Jump to:navigation,search

Linguistics

Theoretical linguistics

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Language acquisition Language assessment Language development Language education

Linguistic anthropology
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Neurolinguistics Psycholinguistics

Second-language acquisition

Related articles

History of linguistics Linguistic prescription

List of linguists List of unsolved problems in linguistics

Portal

v t e

Inlinguistics,prescription denotes normative practices on such aspects of language use as

spelling,grammar,pronunciation, andsyntax. It includes judgments on what usages are

sociallyproper andpolitically correct. Its aims may be to establish astandard language, to

teach what is perceived within a particular society to be correct forms of language, or to

advise on effective communication. Ifusagepreferences are conservative, prescriptionmight (appear to) be resistant tolanguage change; if the usage preferences are radical,

prescription may produceneologisms.[1][page needed]

Prescriptive approaches to language, concerned with how the prescriptivist recommends

language should be used, are often contrasted with the alternative approach ofdescriptivelinguistics, which observes and records how language actually is used.[2]The basis of

linguistic research is text (corpus) analysis and field studies, both of which are descriptive

activities; but description includes each researchers observations of his or her own

language usage. Despite apparent opposition, prescription and description can inform eachother,[1][page needed] since comprehensive descriptive accounts must take into account speaker

attitudes, while some understanding of how language is actually used is necessary forprescription to be effective.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurolinguisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurolinguisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psycholinguisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psycholinguisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second-language_acquisitionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second-language_acquisitionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_linguisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_linguisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguistshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguistshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_linguisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_linguisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Linguisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Linguisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Linguisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Linguisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Linguisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Linguistics&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Linguistics&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spellinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spellinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pronunciationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pronunciationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pronunciationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntaxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntaxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntaxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etiquettehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etiquettehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_correctnesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_correctnesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_correctnesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_changehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_changehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_changehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neologismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neologismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prescriptive#cite_note-McArthur1992generic-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prescriptive#cite_note-McArthur1992generic-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sourceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sourceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sourceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Descriptive_linguisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Descriptive_linguisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Descriptive_linguisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Descriptive_linguisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prescriptive#cite_note-McArthur1992p286-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prescriptive#cite_note-McArthur1992p286-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prescriptive#cite_note-McArthur1992p286-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Text_corpushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Text_corpushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Text_corpushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prescriptive#cite_note-McArthur1992generic-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prescriptive#cite_note-McArthur1992generic-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sourceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sourceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sourceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sourceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prescriptive#cite_note-McArthur1992generic-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Text_corpushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prescriptive#cite_note-McArthur1992p286-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Descriptive_linguisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Descriptive_linguisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sourceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prescriptive#cite_note-McArthur1992generic-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neologismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_changehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_correctnesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etiquettehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntaxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pronunciationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spellinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Linguistics&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Linguisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Linguisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Linguisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_linguisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguistshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_linguisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second-language_acquisitionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psycholinguisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurolinguistics


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Contents

[hide]

1 Aims 2 Authority 3 Origins 4 Sources 5 Problems 6 Prescription and description 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 10 Additional resources

[edit] Aims

The main aims of linguistic prescription are to specify standard language forms eithergenerally (what isStandard English?) or for specific purposes (whatstyleandregisterisappropriate in, for example, alegal brief?) and to formulate these in such a way as to make

them easily taught or learned.[3]Prescription can apply to most aspects of language:

spelling, grammar, semantics, pronunciation and register. Most people would agree that in

all of these areas it is meaningful to describe some usages as, at least, inappropriate inparticular contexts. One main aim of prescription is to draw workable guidelines for

language users seeking advice in such matters.

Standardized languages are useful for interregional communication: speakers of divergentdialectsmay understand astandard languageused inbroadcastingmore readily than they

would understand each other's dialects. It can be argued that such alingua franca, if needed,will evolve by itself, but the desire to formulate and define it is very widespread in most

parts of the world. Writers or communicators who wish to use words clearly, powerfully, or

effectively often use prescriptive rules, believing that these may make theircommunications more widely understood and unambiguous.

A complementary aim of linguistic prescription may be the imposition of a politicalideology. During the second half of the 20th century, politically motivated linguistic

prescription recommended by variousadvocacy groupshad considerable influence on

language use in the context ofpolitical correctness, imposing special rules foranti-sexist,anti-racistor generically anti-discriminatorylanguage (e.g. "people-first language" asadvocated by disability rights organizations).George OrwellinPolitics and the English

Language(1946) criticized the use of euphemisms and convoluted phrasing as a means of

hiding insincerity. Orwell's fictional "Newspeak" (1949) is a parody of ideologically

motivated linguistic prescriptivism.
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#See_alsohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prescriptive#Prescription_and_descriptionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prescriptive#Problemshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prescriptive#Sourceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prescriptive#Originshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prescriptive#Authorityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prescriptive#Aimshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prescriptive


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[edit] Authority

Prescriptive Authority: The Royal Spanish Academy, Madrid.

Prescription presupposes an authority whose judgment may be followed by other membersof a speech community. Such an authority may be a prominent writer or educator such asHenry Fowler, whoseEnglish Usagedefined the standard forBritish Englishfor much of

the 20th century.[4]

TheDudengrammar (first edition 1880) has a similar status for

German. Although dictionary makers often see their work as purely descriptive, theirdictionaries are widely used as prescriptive authorities by the community at large. Popular

books such asLynne Truss'sEats, Shoots & Leaves, which argues for stricter adherence to

prescriptive punctuation rules, have phases of fashion and are authoritative to the extent

that they attract a significant following.

In some language communities, linguistic prescription is regulated formally. TheAcadmiefranaisein Paris is an example of a national body whose recommendations are widely

respected though not legally enforceable. InGermanyand theNetherlands, recent[which?]

spelling reforms were devised by teams of linguists commissioned by the government and

were then implemented by statute. Some were met with significant political dissent, like inthe case of theGerman orthography reform of 1996.

Other kinds of authorities exist in specific settings, such as publishers laying down ahousestylewhich, for example, may either prescribe or proscribe particular spellings or

grammatical forms, such asserial commas.

Examples of prescriptive bodies include:

TheAcadmie franaiseis the national language-governing academic body whoserecommendations, though legally unenforceable, are respected for maintaining standard

French.

The Canadian province ofQubec, where French is perceived to be particularly threatenedby the incursion of English, has its ownOffice qubcois de la langue franaise.
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The German-speaking nations (Germany, Austria, Liechtenstein, Switzerland) establishednational, normative spelling usages for their respective varieties of the language by statute

with theGerman orthography reform of 1996. This reform has remained so controversial

that in aplebisciteinSchleswig Holsteinin 1998, the vast majority of voters decided that

the reform was not to be executed in the Federal State; however the Schleswig-Holstein

parliament overruled this decision in 1999. Many major German newspapers chose to

implement the reform only in part (e.g.Axel Springer AG,Der Spiegel) or not at all, ending

a period where unified German spelling (German:Rechtschreibung, verbatim: right

[=correct] writing), although officially only mandatory in government and educational use,

was the de facto standard in German spelling.

In the Netherlands, standardized spelling norms were compulsory for Dutch governmentpublications yet popular and mass communications media language applied an adapted

spelling reform, seeWordlist of the Dutch languageand theWhite Booklet.

During theera of the Soviet UniontheUnion of Soviet Writerspoliced theRussianlanguagewith prescriptive linguistics to establish astandardized Russian language.

The standard ofSpanishis maintained in 21 countries by theReal Academia Espaolainaffiliation with theAssociation of Spanish Language Academies.

TheAlbanianstandard language (theToskvariety) is regulated by the Social Sciences andAlbanological Section of theAcademy of Sciences of Albania.

The regulating body for standardRomanianis theRomanian Academy; its resolutions andrecommendations are acknowledged by the Romanian state and other entities where

Romanian is officially recognised (e.g., theEuropean UnionandVojvodina). In theRepublic

of Moldova, the only country besides Romania where Romanian is the official language of

the state, the language is officially called "Moldovan" and it is regulated by theAcademyof Sciences of Moldova, through its Institute of Linguistics.

[edit] Origins

Historically, linguistic prescriptivism originates in astandard languagewhen a society

establishessocial stratificationand a socio-economichierarchy. The spoken and written

language usages of theauthorities(state, military, church) are preserved as the standardlanguage to emulate for social success; seesocial class. To distinguish itself from

contemporarycolloquial language, standard language usage includesarchaismsand

honorificcolours. Like-wise, thestyleof language used inritualalso differs from quotidian

speech.[5]Specialceremonial languagesknown only to a select few spiritual leaders withina community are found throughout the world.
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Standard language: Traditional Chinese and Simplified Chinese characters.

When a culture develops awritingsystem,orthographicrules for the consistenttranscription of linguistic outputs allows for a large number of speakers to understand

written communications with minimal difficulty. Linguists largely disregard native writingsystems, replacing the conventional symbols of the language they are researching with

phonetic transcriptions, but they nonetheless rely on some shared orthographic

representation in order to preserve semantic identities with data sets. This is most

commonly achieved by providing the conventional orthographic representation of theEnglish translation of a word alongside theIPAtranscription of the word's pronunciation

when spoken by a native speaker.

Early historical trends in literacy and alphabetization were closely tied to the influence of

various religious institutions:Western Christianitypropagated theLatin alphabet;Eastern

Orthodoxy, theGreekandCyrillicalphabets;Judaism, theHebrew alphabet;Islam, theArabic alphabet; andHinduism, theDevanagariscript;.[6]In certain traditions, strict

adherence to prescribed spellings and pronunciations was and remains of great spiritual

importance.Islamicnaming conventions and greetings are notable examples of linguisticprescription being prerequisite to spiritual righteousness. Another commonly cited example

of prescriptive language usage closely associated with social propriety is the system of

Japanese honorifics.

Standard language: Ptolemaic hieroglyphics from theTemple of Kom Ombo.

Governmentbureaucracytends toward prescriptivism as a means of enforcing functionalcontinuity. Such prescriptivism dates fromancient Egypt, where bureaucrats preserved the
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spelling of theMiddle Kingdom of Egyptinto thePtolemaic periodthrough the standard

usage ofEgyptian hieroglyphics.[7]

Most, if not all, languages with a significant number of speakers demonstrate some degree

of social codification through speaker adherence or non-adherence to prescriptive rules.

Linguistic prestigeis a central research topic withinsociolinguistics. Notions of linguisticprestige apply to different dialects of the same language and also to separate, distinct

languages in multilingual regions. Prestige level disparity often leads to the pheno

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