Museos Campos Concentracion - Desconocido

5/19/2018 Museos Campos Concentracion - Desconocido

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2007 Estonian Literary Museum, Estonian National Museum, University of TartuISSN 1736-6518

Vol 1(1): 727

7

THE ABODE OF THE OTH ER (MUSEUMS IN GERM ANCONCENTRATION CAMPS 19331945)

Boidar JezernikPh.D., Professor

University of LjubljanaFaculty of Arts

Department of Ethnology and Cultural Anthropologyzvt 5, 1000 Ljblj, Slv-ml: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

In major German concentration camps, museums were set up with the aim of col-lecting exhibits and displaying them within a Rassenkunde (race science) frame-

. as t ss l tplg s blt t t t -ference between the pure races and people with inferior hereditary quality, SSmuseums put on display pieces of evidence with a view to rendering present vsbl tt s bst vsbl: t l traces. Thus, collections displayed in SS museums in concentration camps werestmtl t pss g t a bermensch(superhuman) as thepst ll sbl psl, ltl tlltl bts, b tconquer and rule the world as a member of the Herrenvolk (master race), and the-a, bv ll t Js Untermensch(subhuman) as his opposite, a radi-cally other and barely human, suitable only for menial chores.

T st msm stbls Gm tt mps s p d l t 1930s. Sml msms t Gm t-tion camps (Buchenwald, Mauthausen and Auschwitz). The richest was the muse-um in Gusen I, the sub-camp of Mauthausen. In autumn 1940, when the SS begant t stt l bt kz Gs i St Gg lstt, gv- m t B-ag s . all t s s an archaeological museum that was established at the Museumsbaracke(museum

b) t t mp. B t s lgl gs, m ss,slls b pts pt v. at t tm t lbt Gs i,on 5 May 1945, a collection of 286 body parts was found and a voluminous album

t gmts t m s.Today, from all the SS museums anthropological exhibits not a single one ison display in the museum exhibitions set up in the former concentration camps.S , ts stblsmts ls sp t t sll s. Ts,when I interviewed historians employed in Mauthausen Memorial Museum andin Gusen Visitors Centre, in 2005, they were completely unaware of the existenceof above-mentioned museums during the war time.

keywordS: German concentration camps museums identity lg power racism history of anthropology

It is the ideological incompatibility of the concentration camp and the museum which

ms s t tm s ll blls. i m, t tt mp,


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Jour na L of eThnoLoGy and fo LkLor iSTic S 1(1)8

as the very emblem for the system of barbarous terror, symbolises precisely those at-

tbts t t msm s v s tt. yt, mj ttcamps established under SS control, museums were set up with the aim of collectingexhibits and displaying them within a Rassenkunde( s) m.1As thess l tplg s blt t t t bt

the pure races and people with inferior hereditary quality (see e.g. Gnther 1933), SSmuseums put on display pieces of evidence with a view to rendering present and vis-bl tt s bst vsbl: t l t s. Ts,collections displayed in SS museums in concentration camps were instrumental in the

pss g t a bermensch(spm) s t pst ll -sbl psl, ltl tlltl bts, b t q l t las a member of the Herrenvolk (mst ), t -a, bv ll t JsUntermensch(subhuman) as his opposite, a radically other and barely human, suitableonly for menial chores.

hv, s a spt s stt p Js sbmt t

l b t a tt J sm t bg t qstarises of what would happen if the Nazis were successful in their plans to eliminate

ll t Js. T n sl d wl M-cst mpl, M 1944,tt g s tt l p q tt t v t s J l l; sqtl, t tst t Js qst. T slwarned that as a result they may not properly understand the speeches of the Fhrer, ls bgs s pltl mssg t tl smm t Js pb -lem (Tenenbaum 1956: xiii).

raciaL hyGiene

Nazi theory had its roots in the pre-1933 racial anthropology based on a social Darwinistview of genetics and racial purity. At the end of the nineteenth century, German socialDarwinists, fearing a general degeneration of the human race, set about establishing g l g (Rassenhygiene) tt l t t tof physicians away from the individual or the environment and toward the humangerm plasm. In the eyes of its founders, racial hygiene would provide long-run preven-tive medicine for the German germ plasm. During the 1930s, the Nazi movement and

ts lg t t t l gsts. o t mst stgssls t l, Pss otm f v Vs, d Js Mgls t- mt t t uvst ft, pbls tl 1937, pg tbtt al htl bg t st sttsm t gs gts s sst tstt t l (w 1946: 27).

Scholarship within the Nazi system soon acquired a pure service function. Althoughindependent research was tolerated here and there, or even encouraged, the actualtt t tt s ll mpt t t lgs. o t l, s s s s g vl mptt lgl mssgs: t lt ,the Fhrerlt, t t r, ttl xps, sl-s, sm, lltt ls, , lt s (hm 2002: 111). u ts msts,the mainstream of racial hygiene inevitably followed the current of anti-Semitism, its

lls mbtg pt t tgs tt Js.


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Jezernik: The Abode of the Other 9

Racial anthropology was recognised as the primary research goal of many prestig-

s sttts, bt tm t ks wllm isttt atplg, ht egs Bl-dlm, t ks wllm isttt Glg M, t isttt rl hg ft. Pg tmslvs t sv t r, l tplg sttts v s s, psts tss.

T l l tg l sts gs ml stts, pts-ing physicians and members of the SS. These institutes helped train SS physicians andstt t gt gsts lt s t p Js Gpss. n llgslt bgt t bts. Pvt vls, s ll s t ts -ministrative authorities, sought their expert advice concerning whether a person wasa -a, t vg l t. Ts t xpt tstmlss ltv . hv, t bjts t tstmls, t l b m l t t gt t v l (Blg wppm 1991: 5253).

On the basis of an assumption of the existence of diverse human races there followed

ss t, t sv , ttg tsts bt t a -ans and non-Aryans. To epitomise their truth through science (i.e. pseudo-science),t t stt t m s m mtl vlbl tg t pssvapparatus. Notwithstanding the pretence of using empirical facts and the high sound-

g st ss, ts vs tll l b t ttlst vls. S p Js, Gpss, Slvs t Untermenschenhad neverexisted anywhere but in the fantasy of racist anthropologists, SS museums that mush-roomed in connection with racial research became the abode of the other. Already in the1930s, to conduct proper Rassenforschung(racial research), in Dachau a special Race Re-search Department was established. There was a library, a laboratory for sculptures andptgps, l mts msm. T s s t bdelegations of researchers from the various German universities who came out fromtm t tm t gt st mtl t ppss n ppg. Pt-graphs of typical representatives of various nations were shot with the purpose of be-ing published in periodicals with aggressive propaganda aims, such as Der StrmerandDas Schwarze Korps, but also appeared in other periodicals, such asMnchner IllustriertePresseand Illustrierte Beobachter.

The So ci aL f uncTi o n o f i nf eri ori Ty

Before being entrusted with posts of responsibility, members of the SS had to completespecial courses, as a rule in Dachau. In later years all the concentration-camp command-

s t t, t (kg 1980: 21). a lbt, m SS lb d, bs s ll t n bs bs tg pp-ganda and teaching material lantern slides about the Untermenschen. As many margin-al annotations and exclamations bear witness, these teaching guides had been studiedintently (Smith 1972: 127).

As the ideological usefulness of Rassenkundes ll-mptt, t ts tptgsts t svg J s t pl ppst t a. wt

became an accepted image of the subhuman was, supposedly, not just prejudice or

vt bt st t bs sstmt mps, mpl tls


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developed theoretical arguments. In October 1933, for instance, photographers visited

d t st v. a Js mt, Sl, sv s sbjt. i sl Sl v m mmt t mmb t b, l m t stbsm . SS Rassenforschers, pleased with the discovery,ll Sls stbsms tpl Js l (a. 1934: 84). almst ll t

time the camps were in operation, old rabbis, millionaires and other people with nota-bl ss, t lps s s sgt t pps (k 1939:65, 155156; Bl 1945: 126; Lbl 1945: 38; hss 1946: 75; ks kl 1966: 205;Schnabel 1966: 102103; Feig 1979: 154; Bernadac 1981: 325326; Thalmann and Feiner-mann 1988: 173; Pelican 1993: 12; Cohen 1996: 20).

The distorted image of the non-Aryan was of the essence for the members of theHerrenvolkto be instilled with the consciousness of belonging to the chosen few, thusuniting them more closely by ideological means. To be cognizant of it was an importantpart of indoctrination carried out in the training courses for posts in the Nazi hierarchy.

as m g-g Gstp gt Bg llt, t ts stt

l t t t m ltvtg t blt t tll s J tgs m m st tt t, m t t bl

blond and blue-eyed he was (Engelmann 1988: 252). They were not only able to tell who

blg t , bt t ls ml blv t ts. f st, al em vst ast, t Js mt Sss rstl.S s t l Js, msl t t v tt smb ml mst v b a, t pts, t gpts. h s t lt m pms tt l psll t ts tJu-denreinrvsb (Sll 1992: 9).

The frequent tours of Dachau by German and foreign visitors were an important

component of the Nazi propaganda. The SS presented theMusterlagerto experts, scien-tsts msts, s s d ct, f, Gsl, hmml, glts, vs ss-ts, sl-l, gls s l s, s ll s g jl-ists and representatives of charitable organisations as an orderly modelled camp withapparently humanely treated inmates. However, by subordinating specially selectedgroups of inmates whose appearance corresponded to certain racist clichs to the domi-nating gaze of the Nazi visitors, the camp authorities soon made use of them to provethe correctness of racial inferiority of the inmates. In the 1930s, this was an establishedpart of the program, as also was the visit to the so-called museum where objects dis-

pl spps t st t pss psl bmlt. as pt b tNational Socialist Representative Hans Dietrich, who visited Dachau in 1933:

Spg ssl: t s t gt pt t m mtl sts lgbl t mps d. egt t t pcent. of these two thousand prisoners this dismaying impression must inevitablyarise in every visitor who has a clear understanding of racial questions are hy-

b bsts, t spg sl stlls, t Js, ng, Mgl tvl-s-t bl tt (Bml 1934: 46).

i J 1937, rs-SS h hmml lm tt t st gl t tt mp s t s ll tt t sgl t mts s - jstl:


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There is no proof in favour of laws of heredity and race more eloquent than concen-

tt mps. T pls, sqts, m ts, l Js, l p ll sm (T hlm 1969: 68; dvtand Martini 1981: 23).

Such dehumanisation of prisoners had also an important social function: exonerationof their guards from the feeling of responsibility. For henchmen it was extenuating cir-cumstances, if their victims were not humans but animals. For instance, an SS-man inAuschwitz used to set his dog upon the prisoners, shouting: Mensch beiss den Hund!

(M, bt ts g!) (ks kl 1958: 93; S-Bt 1977: 376). T vthis eect, te victims ere crimilise emise, ic is t sy, tey ere liq-uidated at the psychological and/or moral level, which paved the way for the material/r bilgicl liquiti (devt 1985: 99). we se t s te pit f ll teumiliti, y te cruelty, if tey ere gig t ill tem yy, te trius ec -man Franz Stangl put it in plain words: To condition those who actually had to carry out

te plicies. T me it pssible fr tem t t tey i (Serey 1974: 101).

HUM AN M ATERI AL O F SCI ENTI F I C I NTEREST

T st msm stbls t Gm tt mps s p Bl2 t tt mp d l t 1930s. it t ll s p-tgps pts m s slls, bsts m x plst, statues of criminal types made of plaster. The images on display were rather other-ll. f st, Gps t st s mpts tt spps -

edly had stolen and paid with his life for the crime, or a chimney-sweeper who tried tosp bt s gt ll. Bss, t ts, lts, svg-lgppl, vls t sgstg sbs, gpg s s (V 1946: 91;dmg 1957: 12; nsl 1960: 11; kblj 1964: 389; Bb 1968: 10; ov1978: 125; L 1986: 271; cm 1988: 66; kll 2004).

hv, t l t mgs bt ls t b pts, smtms t slts, st, bml gtl, pt glss js s msppreparations in Dachau itself or were prepared there for shipment to various institutes msms t T r (cslv dts 1946: 23; Bl 1946: 53; kp--kbt 1960: 163). f t mst pt t pst vs tpl ppl,

s-ll tstg ss, ll t t jts. as,t l slts b pts llt t t msm sts ,t slls, s s pp-gts SS ss (njg 1973: 159). at t tS wl w, ds tt mp msm st sm t

js slvs ll t t ppts tml sts: bs pplbeaten to death on which the bleeding was discernible, feet full of ulcers and abscess,bt s s t t , t gs tbl, tpand nephritic patients. The jars were labelled with legends of their contents, for in-

st: f t stm ps X mmt s (hlt k1945: 154).

The most important collection in German concentration camps museums was as-sembled in Gusen I, the sub-camp of Mauthausen. In autumn 1940, when the SS began


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t t stt l bt kz Gs i St Gg l stt,a graveyard from the Bronze Age was found. The commander of the camp, SS-Haupt-stm kl cmls, t ts pptt t pst msl s stsman. So, with the approval of Himmler, he stopped the construction of the railway andformed one extra prisoners command to carry out archaeological excavations under

pssl g. h ls t pmt ast mt, d J G-ber (the later Papa Gruber and Saint of Gusen) to head this external command. Onthe whole, some 50 graves were excavated, restored and documented by inmates undert st bsvt d ht Lb-ol m t isttt t Ps-vt Mmts (isttt dmlpg) V. all t s t

b t Gs i t b s lgl msm tt s stbls t tMuseumsbaracke(msm b) t t mp. Ts msm s pstt g-g vsts t t Mts-Gs cmps; 1943, hmml m tsee it for himself. For Christmas 1942 the inmates had to produce an Archaeological

ctlg t sm 85 ptgps gs tt s s b t SS s g

m g-g mms. B t s lgl gs, m ss,slls b pts pt v t msm Gs i. at t tm ts lb-eration, on 5 May 1945, a collection of 286 body parts was found there and a voluminous

lbm t gmts t m s. hlt s pss, t sm spl tsts, l b ll b ms jts t t ts t slts t vl b pts l b psv v spl. Ts, 27 J 1943, lt dt ppl J s ll s sltpreserved. Many body parts were sent to the SS Medical Academy in Graz (Berdych

1959: 79; rbts 1970: 73; L c 1971: 206207; Ml 1987: 2526, 36; 1995: 171;kl 1997: 43; P 2000: 39; hmms 2003: 225; Gmm 2005).

The archaeological museum in Gusen I existed until October 1943, when Himmlerordered that the most valuable archaeological objects (more than ten boxes) should bemoved to Nuremberg to protect them against allied bomb-raids in an adapted naturalv. Ts tt l b t Gs mv t smll t. i 1944, t -lgl mm s p. ot s m t t msm , gthe tunnel digging for the Messerschmidt and Steyr factories, various palaeontological

svs m. a mptt mmmt ts s st t t L msm. a-t t , jst t ts bxs t kz Gs i lgl xbts m bto the praehistoric unit of the Museum of Natural History in Vienna where some pieceswere exhibited until a few years ago, a few other pieces were put on display at the ex-

bt t kz Mts Mml Msm (L c 1971: 206207; Ml1987: 36; Hemmers 2003: 226).

i t s-ll St Bl Bls sptl, pts m bswere displayed on the shelves along the four walls: hearts, livers, lungs, rectums,

breasts, wombs, penises and vaginas, all meticulously labelled with ages and dates(Faramus 1990: 198). The body parts were collected in pathological section in the con-tt-mp sptls. all s spms pp t stpurposes, even if dozens were selected principally in accordance with principles of thefabulous and the amazing. Anatomical bits and pieces were exhibited in a local show-room or sent to the Institute of Hygiene of the Waen SSin Berlin or to the SS Medicalam G (hjm 1948: 186; kg 1980: 244). a t lbt t mp


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in April 1945, the British parliamentary delegation could see a laboratory with a largenumber of glass jars containing preserved specimens of human organs in formaldehyde te lls f te lbrtry ter meicl rms ecrte it et-mss fthe more interesting prisoners (Daily Mail 1945: 9). Every jar carried a label bearing thevictims name, age and race. For instance: Peter Unschlag, Aryan, 35 years old; or, Moritz

Scrt, Je, 55 yers l. o e jr, i ic ert f Jes s preserve, teres tti tt te victims ife bee ary (weistc 1947: 102, 162).

i t sst-m Mts, t, sm SS mp ts pt lltof abnormal body parts in formaldehyde, such as an eye as big as an apple, a hand

t sx gs t l. Ts bl st t s slvs bltround the walls; they all once belonged to the camp inmates (Le Chne 1971: 88; Osten1986: 91; s ls kl 1997: 38).

SS-Hauptsturmfhrer Hans Mller, who in the early 1940s ran the pathology section,llbt t d e wg, mp ml s tg tssstt t mgs. i t st l t ttt t, t pt

pmtl mg t b xt t tst st mmt s evidence of an individuals regression to an antisocial form of being (Bogdan 1988: 249).Mll wg s t l mp t mts, m t photographed. In 1939, the inmates were ordered to report to the dispensary by Com-mt kl o k (t t tt mp Bl m 1937 t1941). T s t t bst mst tst spms slt t ll

by injections. The corpses were then turned over to the pathological section, where thes ps t s t m t bs, tt t pt spl SS vsts s ptl tss. allgl, k msl mpltlb bs b m s tbl lmp s t m bs

t s m s. hv, t s s , ils k, s -beast or commandantess, who enjoyed an unsavoury reputation with Buchenwaldmts tst m s, bv ll t l t mgs. S lmpss, b-vs glvs m t (dl Ml 1945: 9; Mls 1945: 95;cslv dts 1946: 91; hjm 1947: 238; 1948: 186; fs 1953: 146; rs-sll 1954: 182; Mls 1959: 49; c z 1969: 128129; St 2002:82; s ls Sbl 1998: 186). hl t Bl s lbt, ktGlss, t m mts s g t t k ml vll,s s mms f k:

S gt t s l l lmp ss m m s, the Appelplatz we were all ordered to strip to the waist. The ones who had inter-stg ts bgt t , s p t t s s l. Tsppl ll t s s m t lmpss . S ls smmm m tmbs s lgt sts s ( k 1995).

hs m ss, t t bs gs m, t s, ss,sp, plms, msl stmts t l, pp t s, st tBerlin, at the request of SS-Standartenfhrer Enno Lolling, the chief physician in theisptt ctt cmps. Mll ls stt pss g tptlg st t m p ss sml tls m m s(kg 1980: 244-45).


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It was dangerous for an inmate in Dachau, Mauthausen, or any other German con-

tt mp t s l ts tv ts. M s ll t pp s m t ll s bs (slpps, llts,lmp-ss, glvs, b-vs, bgs) (hlt k 1945: 154; cslvdts 1946: 22, 68; M 1946: 93; B 1959: 79; L c 1971: 88, 172; nj-

g 1973: 159; elbg 1985: 94; kl 1997: 4243). f st, SS-hptstmJs km, mmt ast bt M nvmb 1944, gv s bg m t m s t g vs (fl1977: 180). Sml spms pt t tt mps s ll. a mps m ast, ws kl, st, llt sg ml-p-sv ps t m s, s m pss ps (1982:59; s ls c 1996: 18). a t lbt t mp, 29 apl 1945, dmts s svl ps s t mps msm t ptll tstgts, pp t (hlt k 1945: 154).

i Bl, Lllg s ls tst mts sg m s

t t s g. u s stts, t SS pss s t lst tm s (kg 1980: 245). a t lbt t mp 11 apl 1945, mslls, pls s s t ptt Pls, b g vgsexual relations with German girls, were found by the American Army. They were thes st t t ms t p stll t (ittls L-gmt Bl s..: 81; hjm 1948: 186; fs 1953: 147; rssll 1954:182; T 1962: 387; Lgv 1963: 149; c z 1969: 128; kg 1980:245; Bt 1989: 143; St 2002: 82).

i t t 1941, cmmt h stt msm ast. Pt -graphs, drawings and paintings made by expert inmates showing the characteristics of

racially inferior inmates were put on display there (Costanza 1982: 26, 42; Fritz 1986:78). The collection of body parts was standard practice also in Auschwitz. An SS doctor tm pss t t uvst Mst, J Pl km, his diary that he preserved fresh material from the human liver, spleen and pancreas

svl ss; m g Js ps s st ptgp(Bs c 1995: 167169, 173; s ls T hlm 1969: 114115).As recollected by Helmut Clemens, an errand boy for Mengele, many glass jars withpreserved hearts, brains, eyes and other body parts were displayed there (Fings 1997:104; Hesse 2001: 75). Besides, there were also some plaster casts of the womens genitalia(Central Commission 1946: 75).

i ast, vt b pts st tst tt xtt -g sst psv s tml spms st t t ks wllmisttt t Bl-dlm s pt s st t l spt (Mll1979: 46; ast 1985: 97; Blg wppm 1991: 54; Pt 1992: 19-20; kb1994: 325; L h 1994: 314; fgs 1997: 105; kl 1997: 475; Vll 2000:154, 170; Sonneman 2002: 70). Former inmates remembered an entire wall covered withss m s, p l bs, tbl ll s (ast 1985:98; Ps w 1986: 34; kb 1994: 326; kl 1997: 480). T d wg t ks wllm isttt, s gg st Gps ts -pt t mls, Mgl ll Gpss b t jtsso that he could send their eyes to his former teacher and mentor, Professor Otmar von


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Verschuer, and other scientists at the prestigious institute. In one case, Mengele ordered

tt t ml gt b ll s tt t s l b sst st tBerlin-Dahlem. All together, Mengele sent at least forty pairs of eyes to Berlin-Dahlem

d k Mgss s g s tm (wlg 1989:563; kl 1997: 487; S 1998: 235236; Vll 2000: 169170; hss 2001: 68; S-

neman 2002: 6970; Langbein 2004: 340).In autumn 1944, the imprisoned gynaecologist Gisela Perl had been ordered to inter-

pt t-mt-l pg sv t mb ml. it s ltoperation without instruments, without anaesthetics, but she succeeded in bringing out

t gt--l ts p. it s btl spm s pt t tt ml j t s t t d Mgl (Pl 1948: 119120). as s t lg mb bts t gt mbs (kl 1997: 484; Vll2000: 168). T mbs pt glss js st t Bl (Pl 1948: 122; kl1997: 484485).

Former inmates also bore witness of the whole heads of particular anthropological

tst pt glss js (kl 1982: 58). it sms tt t mjt tm bsevered from the bodies of Gypsy children with noma in order to be transported to the

SS isttt hg t rjs stptlgl st. T sttt ppspecimens of selected body organs and preserved heads of children in formaldehyde

js, lv t t SS Ml am G (cslv dts1946: 8485; kb 1994: 320, 333). Mgl st sm tm ls t t ks wl -helm Institute; one of the few existing documents that cover Mengeles time at Ausch-witz is a paper he signed to accompany the head of a twelve-year-old Gypsy boy (Astor

1985: 101; Stl 1993: 93; kl 1997: 403404, 482).T mst mptt t xpmtt t ast s Bl 10. T bl

ts msm s tp m splt, lg tls st[mmm] bs (L 1986: 271).

During the Nazi era, such museums were not established just in concentration campsbt t st sttts t. as ptgp v m apl 1942 -dicates, a similar collection of papier-mch models of Gypsy heads was put on show

b t ml-blgl ptmt t r hlt o Bl-dlm, d rbt r s ssstts tv (s Blg wppm1991: 119).

A VALUABLE CONT RIBUT ION TO ANTH ROPOLOGICAL SCIENCEBy dr JoSef MenGeLe

SS-hptstm Js Mgl, s Pd s tss ttlRacial Morphological Research on the Lower Jaw Section of Four Racial Groups at the Univer-sity of Munich in 1935, was drawn to Auschwitz by the camps potential for research, albt ll m g pgs. Pss v Vs, s tm -t ks wllm isttt, d f Sb, t ts mstsurgeon, arranged with the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschafor funds to cover Menge-ls vstgts t tt mp (ast 1985: 9192; Ps w 1986:12; wlg 1989: 562; Stl 993: 90-91; kl 1997: 472, 488). i agst 1943,


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progress report to the Council, Professor von Verschuer wrote:

My co-researcher in this research is my assistant the anthropologist and physicianMengele. He is serving as Hauptsturmfhrer and camp doctor in the concentrationmp ast. wt t pmss t rs SS [hmml], t-plgl s s bg t t vs l gps t -tration camp and blood samples will be sent to my laboratory for investigation(Ps w 1986: 33).

A year later, Mengeles garrison commander produced another report about his re-s t mp glg tms t Mgls xp -ments on twins: In addition to that, he, as an anthropologist, has most zealously useds ll -tm t t t msl t , tlg t st mtl ts spsl t s l pst, s m vlbl tbt s tanthropological science. Therefore, his performance can be called outstanding (Posner w 1986: 53).

at t bgg Sptmb 1944 st s gs as-t t d Js Mgl s t m sp; s pstt bg ttl ex -mpls t w atplgl ht Blg t cttcmp (Ps w 1986: 55).

Visitors to SS museums were members of all grades and strata of the Nazi world, in-cluding the employees of Rassenforschunginstitutes. To vary the sight-seeing, the camptts sll xbt mptt pslts m t s t mtson the way to the museum distinguished persons, church dignitaries of various per-sss, pltl gs m q ts ll- tsts p-st tm lgs ms, psts Gpss (Bl 1946: 48; dmg 1957:

12; nsl 1960: 11; zm 2003: 77). nlss t s, t SS m s ttts t sttv psl tsts pst t mobvious that only dangerous and abnormal beings were imprisoned (Berben 1968: 10).Commander of the camp introduced to the visitors some of them as a multiple murder-er, the other s Vs m c cmmst pt pps s J-ish doctor who raped dozens of Aryan girls. These live anthropological exponats weremtlsl slt t pl ts g l t vst (zm2003: 77).

In Auschwitz, some years later, LagerarztJs Mgl tlss ts mst-ts b sg p ss s mst ts st s, ll sv tm,

before an audience of one visiting senior bureaucrat and 2000 SS men. The dwarfs be-lg t rm Js s ml, t Mstss. w Mgl st steyes on two of them, a pair of twins named Elizabeth and Perla, he exclaimed with de-

lgt tt tt s. Mgl stpp t ml Lllpts tmptl p tm stg, mplt t ml t t lls-tt s pt tt t t spg gt bs (Ps w1986: 5354; L h 1994: 313; kl 1997: 473475; Vll 2000: 156157).

Testimonies and accounts by former prisoners indicate that Mengele treated dwarfs pss t t bmlts s t sbjts st tst.hvg pl tm spt bls t tplgl msmts t ll tm. h ml spll pp slts t m s


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pp pss t t atplgl isttt t t ks wllm ist-tt t llt (kb 1994: 326).

newTonS and ShakeSPeareS To order

extms l ts, v, t sgst t ns. o t t, mststprovided a desirable contrast with the more harmonious form of imagined Aryan men,and we can detect a certain fascination with the monstrous as an outgrowth of chauvin-ism and opposition between Aryans and the others based on it. The SS bermenschen

blv tt t mg psl pp (. .g. kg 1980: 3) sttt st b ll t ts jg: t l pv msts b-s t t l xtl l l a. T bjt l s s tl t Mst r lg t t sptblt st ts. as m t, t st vl s l bs t s bg t t ptss bson evaluation of evidence but rather with axioms for which evidence had to be found.

as e Mm k-amgl, m ps m ast, llt,one day she and her mother were called in for examination. A specialist in racial scienceand his assistant had arrived from Berlin to do their research. This consisted of shoot-g lm tg ptgps () pss, mg sts srepresenting various races found in the camp. In the room she remembered seeingsome shelves with several plaster heads placed on them. At the base of each head was ap b t t tt Gps, u, Pls ts. Ts s t m s t G . fst qst t mt, btjt , s s s t G. T ls t gt stl

psttv t t Js t G. h g ll t mt s t gt sst t t t gt s. Pps s t cst? h pt qstg s bmg sgl t ls. i t lt tm bt g tt mg sts (kamgl 2000: 100; s ls Sll 1991: 70, 81; kl 1997: 371372).

Rassenkundewas by no means just information about the racial other, but its veryt, ts bt (Glbg 1993: 184); ts lls t t st lthe data that substantiated their preconceptions. If not, they simply ignored them. Howts mt , s bst llstt b t d Js Mgl t s -s. up t vl tspt Pls Js m t g L agst1944, Mgl, tg s mp ps, sp b m bt s l s mp b tll, sm b sxt ta deformed right foot, which had been corrected by an apparatus made of a metal plate tp, t-sl s. T t s. Mgl tgt sv, t ps t b t s lm s, svgxmpl t mstt s t t Js s g. h tm llt s mmtl d Mls nsl t xm tm m llpt v, t xt msmts t t st p ll s l-g ll tstg tls, spll ts ltv t t ss pv t

bl mts (nsl 1973: 128129). w ts , t t stdead. These bodies must not be cremated, he said. They must be prepared and their


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slts st t t atplgl Msm Bl (nsl 1973: 129; s lskl 1997: 480). S t , l t t pss m t sm tspt tdirectly to the gas chambers or were doomed to die in the following months; their bod-ies literally turned into ashes.

B sg t slts t Bl, mp b gp s, Mgl

t tg l t tm. T pmpsl xm t pts t slts l t g-sg, st tms, tlg s t t vtms p-resented an extremely rare medical phenomenon. They abandoned themselves com-pletely to their pseudo-science (Nyiszli 1973: 132).

Twin studies that is, of identical twins raised apart were among the leadingpreoccupations of several racial-hygiene institutes; their purpose was to sort out theltv s t t m t sttts. rlgsts v tt m s m bv t t gt m, llsm, lst, v v. Sts ts bv tenvironments were supposed to prove the absolute primacy of heredity over environ-

mt. as sq, s ss 1939 b it Mst wllm ftt ll ts t b gst t Pbl hlt os t pps gtresearch (Proctor 1992: 1920).

Tg s m s t mt v Vs, d Mgl vlp stg tst mgt ts s t t sts t tt s tm ast l l. h l ls sgl t p lvpairs of twins, as he did people with abnormalities and defects, when he was on dutyat selections for the gas chamber. The features that were identical, he assumed, wereinherited, the rest developed or were acquired by time and the environment. Hence, thepopulation could be controlled and genetically engineered to perfection (Perl 1948: 125;

ast 1985: 19, 91; Ps w 1986: 3). Ts st Mgls xpmts s Bl 14 cmp f B, m t z (Ps w1986: 35). d hs M, t t hg isttt t Mlt SS trjs, ast sbmp, m t Mgl ll, btabout his motivation: Himmler was one of the great Nazi mystics and it is conceiv-bl pssbl tt ps-st s s t t pps plsghmml. ctl Mgls pm gl s t bm vst pss t (Ps w 1986: 32).

ag t t ts mts ssg l ts Mglsresearch, and of its subjects themselves, individual pairs of twins were subjected to fourtypes of examinations: anthropometric, morphological, x-ray and psychiatric evalua-tion. For his research Mengele employed the services of some twenty doctors, special-ists in relevant branch of medicine; they conducted morphological, x-ray and surgicalxmts, s ll s sgt, g tl s. i t, mpl tanthropologist Dr Martina Puzyna, former assistant to the Polish anthropology profes-

s J cs t t uvst L. cs pt mt sttstll msg t xtl ts tms l gps. d P- s sppl t t ltst Sss ps msg stmts bg in April 1944. During the next six months, almost until Auschwitz was liberated by ther am J 1945, s ms sm 250 ps ts (Ps w1986: 3637; kb 1994: 323; kl 1997: 485; Vll 2000: 147; Stj 2003: 93). T


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anthropological exam consisted of each body part being precisely measured and results

mp. dg t s, msmts t t slls, s, ssand other external features, carefully noting down every detail the distance from the

s t t , t st bt t s, t m t t l(hm 1991: 216; Stl 1993: 9192; kb 1994: 323; St 1995: 66; kl

1997: 477478). Mgl psll ptgp t sbjts s tst tst ts ts t t ptgp sp t m mp, ast i. as t ls t b s sml s pssbl t t ss t s, mpl dGlbv, c Jss, s pt. Glbv m mptv gs vl b pts ts, s t xpmtl sbjts (kb 1994:323).

The documentation of Mengeles research, including photographs, drawings, ac-

ts lss, s psv spl ls, ps sbjt txpmts. T ls l psl t t 96 tls, x-, ptgp results of blood, urine, stool and saliva samples. The last stage of Mengeles research

was the analysis of body parts during dissection; that is why human guinea pigs werell b t pl jt (kb 1994: 324325; Vll 2000: 147).

As recollected by one of his victims, the daily routine for Mengeles twins was regi-

mt. a Mgls vst, t v sm t t t t lbs tsts. T xm, ms gv x-s. T tms tm m B t ast, t ssmbl, , -mous room in front of a dozen doctors. They measured parts of the body: the size of themt, t sp t bs t sll, t ls s .Ts tls mp t t pt st ts. T spms ptgp tlg (Ms-k 1992: 5657).

Many former prisoners agree that Mengele held that it was possible to select, engi-, ltmtl p t a (nsl 1973: 54; rmt 1985: 212;Ps w 1986: 12, 43; Ms-k 1992: 5657). a m ps gsm lg Mgls s ast stmt tt s xpmts,lg st vl, m t ls plg. S pt t g tts lt, lmg tt p t v , s! (Lgl 1959:153). Mgls s, s d Mt P pt t, tbt t s llm t m t t t t tt ts (Ps w 1986: 43). fMengele, the splendid vision was ber alles. i t s ttfacts, he simply ignored or altered them. Ella Lingens-Reiner even hypothesised that

pbbl ls tt t m pst bts ssts t stg ml lss s ssml ts (1948: 153).

hv, am pstst rbt J L s lss l t blv ttMgl ssl tgt l g gt ps tg mltvt. ist, L lt tt Mgl tt t m ps l compiling measurements of human anatomy, that his research was basically standardfor research in physical anthropology at that time, as was his zeal to measure every-tg. hs mt s sptv, t mssg t, L lm, i v tt sgtl gl st s (ast 1985: 99).

It was the allure of numbers that fascinated many nineteenth- and twentieth-cen-tury physical anthropologists. It inspired in them the faith that rigorous measurement


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could guarantee irrefutable precision (Gould 1984: 7374). As a result, in that time an-

tplgs lm t st stts s lgl bs ts vtbl qt ttpmt t l msmt t m tml ts. a-cording to RassenGt, ts ts s ps msmt t gt, t lgt t lmbs, t sll ts pts, mtls tmt t l t

s ( l sl), t s (Gt 1927: 2). amg ts -tomical features, the most important was the human cranium, and from the 1840s, whenthe Swedish anatomist Anders Retzius used the ratio of width to length to distinguishlpl m bpl s slls, mt s t pvlgm tpmt q (wlg 1989: 50; Mss 1996: 107). hv, Mengeles research was indeed no more than basically descriptive science, it does notnecessarily mean that he did not aspire to more noble goals. Already in the mid-nine-teenth century some authors had criticised the approach of the contemporary anthro-pologists who were occupied exclusively with the past; with Mans antiquity; with hisorigin, whether born or created; with race distinctions being most assiduous in col-

ltg slls, tlg mst ll lpl bpl (lgand short heads), without apparently a suspicion at present that brains are of any use.As it was argued then, the object of Anthropological Science must be to improve the

m, t m nts Ssps t (B 1868: ).

SkuLLS and Bo neS

at g pt l s s t llt slls sltsbrought together by SS-Hauptsturmfhrer Dr August Hirt, who held the chair of anat-

m t Stsbg uvst t sps tAhnenerbe(AncestralHeritage Society) headed by Heinrich Himmler. As stated by himself, Hirt accumulated llt slls l ll s, l t s t Js t t t pmt st lss. h s t t est s pptt t tts stt s bt tgbl st v b pg t slls tJs-Blsv mmsss ps plsv, t tst, sbm-t (utmstm) (c 1953: 102; dl 1963: 369; kl 1997: 359).

To ensure the integrity of his studies, Hirt insisted on having the heads of the speci-ms ms ptgps t l t stll lv. i v t st Js-Blsv cmmsss, ttl 115 ts lg 79 Js m, 30

Js m, ctl ass t Pls slt. SS-hptstmDr Bruno Beger, an anthropologist and a member of the 1938 Nazi expedition into Tibet,

t tt tm g t ab, m t ast t slt t ppptpss. T t t t tt mp ntl, Stsbg, eighty of them were gassed at the beginning of August 1943. For this purpose a specialgas chamber had been constructed. The investigators made sure that the heads weret mg t llg. cmplt pss, t t slls l, tspt tthe Anatomical Institute at Strasburg University and stored there. Various studies were

pm t slls bs, lg ts l lsst pt-lgl ts t sll mt (c 1953: 102103; Tbm 1956: 104;T hlm 1969: 185; S 1971: 303; L 1986: 284285; Ml l-hll 1988:


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51; hm 1991: 140144; Sll 1991: 57; kl 1997: 371; s ls kt 1997:250251; Hale 2004: 427, 514519).

w t all ms pp t t, Pss ht s sssttst mt t s t sst pss, bt t ts s t v t lmtfacilities at hand. As a consequence, French forces liberating Strasburg found in Hirts

dissection room many wholly unprocessed corpses, others partly-processed and a tt b s lt 1944 (L 1986: 254, 286).

Pss hts llt Stsbg s t t l t . T mtthe demands of German civil and military institutes and also for private purposes,

t , pts bs, smtms l slts pp d, ts sbl t t SS m t v l m sll bs s mts t tg ss. T mst ppl slls g mts t lttt; sll, s vls ll t jt t slts slls pp (cslv dts 1946: 22; Bl 1946: 53; hss 1946: 176;kp-kbt 1960: ii, 163). i t tt mp Mts svl -

ts t vs psl sts ll b SS mp ts. o 10 Sp-tmb 1941, SS-Stmb d e kbsb ll t Sps psfs Bl f pt s sll s t s s (P 2000: 83).it sms tt t dt Js, g 1820, t tt g qlt ls slt spl jts, t slls s s s ppgt t t nts ss (dl 1963: 311; L c 1971: 88; P 2000: 86). i t ptgtt t Mts tt mp t st, x mtl pl, v slll pp slt ll-m m. T slt s t tmthe Spaniard Umberto, who was the only one of all well-formed men whose teeth werell g t (vv 1946: 142; s ls Tm 1945: 8). a m mt,

d Js Pl, pt sg t sts m t slls ll pss; t lbt t mp v ts llt t t am mlpl (cslv dts 1946: 68). nt l slts ll-m ppl, btslts t bl mts, t, gt m s sbjts s. ass, t st t t SS Ml am G (kl 1997: 43, 136).

i ast, t, slts vls t bl mts ll .ag t m ps s M zmbt, zg s sl-t s pp st t msm Bl (kl 1997: 473). as m cinmate, Ludovit Feld, remembered, he and his peers in Auschwitz lived through great

p t tt t l s lt b m t slts pt spl blgl msm (kl 1997: 475).

altg, t, ts mpts b l ststs jg s ms, smlviews were quite common. The object-centred logic of natural history museums re-quired that the topic of human race be presented through static displays of artefacts andtexts. In most museums, actual human bones, teeth and hair were displayed, along withthe statistics, charts and photographic studies that comprised the evidence of racial cat-gs. osll, plst sts gs l ts s t tplglexhibitions were displayed (Lang Teslow 1998: 57). It seems that anthropological col-

lts t tt t sttt spll t msttl s. Sml Gg Mt, s t t mg t stsstmt llts slls, t tt: T ppl bjt mg t ll-


16/21


g llt s b t mp t t t sll t t s m, ts g t t slls t l mls, spll t t -ence to the internal capacity of the cranium as indicative of the size of the brain (Dias1998: 3637).

a doLichocePhaLic dicTionaryor a BrachycePhaLic GraM Mar?

According to Curator Berthold Laufer in his preface to Henry Fields The Races of Man-kind, the word Aryan was one of the most misunderstood and misused terms. In itsg ts blg t t Sst i lggs sgt ti i lggs sgt t i i st s t b- t vs mgt t i i, sptvl. w t lgstltsp Sst i t G, Lt, Slv, Gm clt sdiscovered, the term Aryan was sometimes applied by European philologists to this en-tire family of languages, but was later replaced by the term Indo-European. For Laufer,

t s s tg s a , bl , s bl scharacteristic of Indo-Europeans. On the contrary, while there is no blondness amongt ppl i i, t s mg Smts, Ts, f-ugs Central-Asiatics. To uphold his point of view, Laufer suggested that the most perfectspm t s ppll bt gl stl a mt T mIstanbul. He also referred to Max Mller who expressed the opinion that an ethnologist

sps a , a bl, a s , s s lgst l sp lpl t bpl gmm ( fl1933: 5-6).

In the Third Reich, however, contemporary racial anthropologists did not shareLaufers opinion. For them, the Aryan had a long head and blood group A, was tall, bl- (Gt 1927: 2, 264), l t t s t Js, Gpss Slvs - bl-, s, lg s bl gpB (s .g. kg 1999: 45; hm 2002: 115). altg tl ts t mpl-lingly against their construct, this did not mean that they were not persuasive enoughin selling it. And they were not the Nazis alone who subscribed to this point of view.ds t S wl w s v, m mts m ast tm g s tt t mspv t agl dt d Js Mgl,sbg m s v a-lg s tll bl, ltg m lslresembled a Zigeunertyp than a perfect Nordic specimen: hewas no taller than 160tmts, t s st, lmst gpsl mplx (J- 2001: 352; s ls ast 1985: 6; Ps w 1986: 25, 52; kl 1997: 459; .

J 2004: 3132).Natural history museums and SS museums exhibitions, preoccupied with the race

stts, bt st t t m sslsg t l , plgambivalence and barring any doubts. Created to generate and protect group interests,

t bt as l tl m -as (s Ltl 1996: 128). am mt ast llt, t smm 1944, tt d Js Mgl l gtll t t st mtl llt t t lp


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lg st ps-llbts, lmg: wt pt t ll ll t t s t Blsvs! (Lgs-r 1948: 153). as m ast ps, k Jst,pt tt t mm t mp 1942, Mt wss, t splobjects dismantled and put them away in a nearby horse-stable, where they had beenst b t SS stl b t lbts d (kll 2004); sml

s t t l xbts ls (s .g. hss 2001: 84). T, m ll t SSmuseums anthropological exhibits not a single one is on display in the museums ex-hibits set up in former concentration camps. Not only are they not accounted for, theyhave also been lost in obscurity. It is my opinion that the removal of the SS museumsand their exhibits out of our sight was at least partly motivated by the apprehensive-ss bt t st bjtvt. hv, t sl v b psv. ntas evidences of non-Aryan inferiority, which they were not, but as a powerful reminderthat anthropology without humanity just could not aspire to be a science.

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NO TES

1Museums of various types were also set up in Italian concentration camps during the Sec-

wl w (s J 1999: 196), ygslv tt mps stbls ts-ll ms t stt Tts b-p t Stl 1948 (s J 1994: 161).

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