1

Meta

llic O

re D

eposits

Meta

llic O

re D

eposits

Avera

ge A

bundance o

f O

re M

eta

ls in

Avera

ge A

bundance o

f O

re M

eta

ls in

Earth

Earth’’ s

Cru

st

s C

rust

71 p

pm

71 p

pm

Zin

c (Zn)

Zin

c (Zn)

5.5

ppm

5.5

ppm

Tin

(Tin

(Sn

Sn))

20 p

pm

20 p

pm

Lead (Pb)

Lead (Pb)

20 p

pm

20 p

pm

Nic

kel (N

i)N

ickel (N

i)

350000 p

pm

350000 p

pm

Iron (Fe)

Iron (Fe)

25 p

pm

25 p

pm

Copper (C

u)

Copper (C

u)

.002 p

pm

.002 p

pm

Gold

(Au)

Gold

(Au)

.050 p

pm

.050 p

pm

Silv

er (A

g)

Silv

er (A

g)

Average Abundance in

Average Abundance in

the Crust

the Crust

Metal

Metal

ppm

= p

arts p

er

millio

n

= g

ram

s p

er

tonne

Types o

f M

eta

lsTypes o

f M

eta

ls

��B

ase M

eta

lsB

ase M

eta

ls

��M

eta

ls that oxid

ize a

nd c

orr

ode rela

tively

M

eta

ls that oxid

ize a

nd c

orr

ode rela

tively

easily

easily

��Fe, Pb, Zn, C

u, N

iFe, Pb, Zn, C

u, N

i

��P

recio

us M

eta

lsP

recio

us M

eta

ls

��M

eta

ls o

f hig

h e

conom

ic v

alu

e, and w

hic

h d

o

Meta

ls o

f hig

h e

conom

ic v

alu

e, and w

hic

h d

o

not oxid

ize o

r corr

ode e

asily

not oxid

ize o

r corr

ode e

asily

��Au, Pt, A

gAu, Pt, A

g

Requirem

ents

for O

re D

eposit F

orm

ation

Requirem

ents

for O

re D

eposit F

orm

ation

��All

ore

deposits require the follo

win

g:

All

ore

deposits require the follo

win

g:

��A s

ourc

e o

f m

eta

lsA s

ourc

e o

f m

eta

ls

��A m

eans to tra

nsport the m

eta

lsA m

eans to tra

nsport the m

eta

ls

��A flu

idA flu

id

��An e

nerg

y s

ourc

e (heat or gra

vity)

An e

nerg

y s

ourc

e (heat or gra

vity)

��A m

eans to c

oncentrate

the m

eta

ls a

t one location in

A m

eans to c

oncentrate

the m

eta

ls a

t one location in

an e

xtracta

ble

form

an e

xtracta

ble

form

��C

hange in c

hem

ical conditio

ns

Change in c

hem

ical conditio

ns

��Physic

al sortin

gPhysic

al sortin

g

2

Exam

ple

s o

f O

re D

eposit M

odels

Exam

ple

s o

f O

re D

eposit M

odels

��M

agm

aM

agm

a-- R

ela

ted O

re D

eposits

Rela

ted O

re D

eposits

��M

agm

a a

s a

Sourc

e o

f M

eta

ls (Epitherm

al)

Magm

a a

s a

Sourc

e o

f M

eta

ls (Epitherm

al)

��M

agm

a a

s a

Heat Engin

e (VM

S)

Magm

a a

s a

Heat Engin

e (VM

S)

��E

rosio

n/D

epositio

nE

rosio

n/D

epositio

n-- R

ela

ted O

re D

eposits

Rela

ted O

re D

eposits

��Physic

al Sortin

g o

f O

re M

inera

ls (Pla

cer)

Physic

al Sortin

g o

f O

re M

inera

ls (Pla

cer)

��C

hem

ical W

eath

ering a

nd C

oncentration o

f C

hem

ical W

eath

ering a

nd C

oncentration o

f

Ore

Min

era

ls (Superg

ene)

Ore

Min

era

ls (Superg

ene)

Epitherm

al M

inera

lization in V

ein

sE

pitherm

al M

inera

lization in V

ein

s

Au, Ag, C

u

Epitherm

al D

eposits

Epitherm

al D

eposits

VM

S O

res

VM

S O

res

Cu, Zn, Pb

3

Volc

anogenic

Massiv

e S

ulfid

e (V

MS

) V

olc

anogenic

Massiv

e S

ulfid

e (V

MS

)

Deposits

Deposits

Bla

ck S

mokers

: K

ey to V

MS

Deposits

Bla

ck S

mokers

: K

ey to V

MS

Deposits

Model fo

r V

MS

Deposits

Model fo

r V

MS

Deposits

Pla

cer D

eposits

Pla

cer D

eposits

Au, Pt, A

g

4

Model fo

r P

lacer D

eposits

Model fo

r P

lacer D

eposits

Superg

ene M

inera

lization

Superg

ene M

inera

lization

Cu, Pb, Zn

Eh

Eh-- p

H D

iagra

ms

pH

Dia

gra

ms

Eh

Eh-- p

H

pH

Dia

gra

m: C

uD

iagra

m: C

u

5

Techniq

ues o

f S

meltin

gTechniq

ues o

f S

meltin

g

Native C

opper

Native C

opper

��C

opper can o

ccur as a

C

opper can o

ccur as a

native e

lem

ent

native e

lem

ent

��C

om

monly

associa

ted

Com

monly

associa

ted

with v

olc

anic

rocks

with v

olc

anic

rocks

��H

ard

ness =

2.5

Hard

ness =

2.5

-- 33

��M

alle

able

Malle

able

��M

eltin

g T

= 1

095

Meltin

g T

= 1

095°° CC

Early C

opper U

se

Early C

opper U

se

��N

ative c

opper is

too

Native c

opper is

too

soft to b

e u

sed

soft to b

e u

sed

effectively

for to

ols

effectively

for to

ols

��In

itia

lly n

ative c

opper

Initia

lly n

ative c

opper

was u

sed for valu

able

w

as u

sed for valu

able

orn

am

ents

orn

am

ents

��Beads, dis

ks, pla

tes,

Beads, dis

ks, pla

tes,

headdre

sses

headdre

sses

Cold

Cold

-- Work

ing o

f C

opper

Work

ing o

f C

opper

��H

am

mering, pre

ssin

g, ro

lling, etc

. of

Ham

mering, pre

ssin

g, ro

lling, etc

. of

copper w

hen it is

cold

changes its

copper w

hen it is

cold

changes its

pro

pertie

s d

ue to d

efo

rmation o

f th

e

pro

pertie

s d

ue to d

efo

rmation o

f th

e

copper cry

sta

lscopper cry

sta

ls

��C

opper becom

es h

ard

er (s

imila

r to

iro

n)

Copper becom

es h

ard

er (s

imila

r to

iro

n)

��C

opper becom

es m

ore

brittle

Copper becom

es m

ore

brittle

6

Chalc

olit

hic

Chalc

olit

hic

Period

Period

��C

opper w

as c

old

Copper w

as c

old

-- work

ed a

s long a

go a

s

work

ed a

s long a

go a

s

7000B

C a

t 7000B

C a

t ÇÇ

ay

ayöönnüü

Tepesi

Tepesi , in e

aste

rn

, in

easte

rn

Turk

ey

Turk

ey

��Tra

nsitio

n fro

m S

tone A

ge (N

eolit

hic

) Tra

nsitio

n fro

m S

tone A

ge (N

eolit

hic

)

chara

cte

rized b

y the a

bsence o

f m

eta

ls for

chara

cte

rized b

y the a

bsence o

f m

eta

ls for

tool m

akin

g, to

the B

ronze A

ge w

here

to

ol m

akin

g, to

the B

ronze A

ge w

here

copper allo

ys w

ere

used

copper allo

ys w

ere

used

Copper M

inera

lsC

opper M

inera

ls

��N

ative C

opper

Native C

opper

��C

uprite

Cuprite

(Cu O

xid

e)

(Cu O

xid

e)

��M

ala

chite a

nd A

zurite

Mala

chite a

nd A

zurite

(Cu C

arb

onate

s)

(Cu C

arb

onate

s)

��C

halc

ocite

Chalc

ocite

(Cu

(Cu

22S),

S),

Covellite

Covellite

(( CuS

CuS

),),Born

ite

Born

ite

(Cu5FeS4),

(Cu5FeS4),

Chalc

opyrite

(C

uFeS2)

Chalc

opyrite

(C

uFeS2)

��Tetrahedrite

Tetrahedrite

(Cu

(Cu

12

12Sb

Sb

44SS

13

13

),

),

Tennantite

Tennantite

(Cu

(Cu

12

12As

As

44SS

13

13))

Copper S

meltin

gC

opper S

meltin

g

��O

f th

e c

opper m

inera

ls o

nly

native C

u h

as

Of th

e c

opper m

inera

ls o

nly

native C

u h

as

the m

alle

able

pro

pertie

s o

f a m

eta

lth

e m

alle

able

pro

pertie

s o

f a m

eta

l

��O

ther copper m

inera

ls n

eed to b

e tre

ate

d

Oth

er copper m

inera

ls n

eed to b

e tre

ate

d

in o

rder to

extract native c

opper

in o

rder to

extract native c

opper

��Sm

eltin

gSm

eltin

gis

the s

epara

tion o

f m

eta

ls fro

m o

re

is the s

epara

tion o

f m

eta

ls fro

m o

re

by h

eating the o

re in a

reducin

g e

nvironm

ent

by h

eating the o

re in a

reducin

g e

nvironm

ent

Sm

eltin

g fro

m M

ala

chite O

reS

meltin

g fro

m M

ala

chite O

re

��H

eating o

f m

ala

chite in a

fire o

r fu

rnace p

roduces c

opper

Heating o

f m

ala

chite in a

fire o

r fu

rnace p

roduces c

opper

oxid

eoxid

e

��C

uC

u22(C

O(C

O33)(O

H)

)(O

H) 22

= 2

CuO

+ C

O= 2

CuO

+ C

O22+ H

+ H

22O

O

��H

eating c

opper oxid

e to 1

100

Heating c

opper oxid

e to 1

100°° C

under lo

wC

under lo

w-- o

xygen

oxygen

conditio

ns p

roduces m

olten c

opper

conditio

ns p

roduces m

olten c

opper

��C

uO

CuO

+ C

O =

Cu +

CO

+ C

O =

Cu +

CO

22

��If there

was too m

uch s

ilicate

mate

rial in

the o

re, th

en

If there

was too m

uch s

ilicate

mate

rial in

the o

re, th

en

the c

opper w

ould

melt b

ut w

ould

not separa

te fro

m the

the c

opper w

ould

melt b

ut w

ould

not separa

te fro

m the

solid

sili

cate

ssolid

sili

cate

s

7

Sm

eltin

g a

nd P

ottery

Sm

eltin

g a

nd P

ottery

��C

lay w

ill h

ard

en a

t ~650

Cla

y w

ill h

ard

en a

t ~650°° CC

��Sim

ple

cera

mic

s c

ould

have b

een p

roduced in

Sim

ple

cera

mic

s c

ould

have b

een p

roduced in

a c

am

pfire

a c

am

pfire

��S

meltin

g requires ~

1100

Sm

eltin

g requires ~

1100°° CC

��R

equires tem

pera

ture

s in e

xcess o

f th

at

Requires tem

pera

ture

s in e

xcess o

f th

at

pro

duced b

y a

cam

pfire

pro

duced b

y a

cam

pfire

��R

equires a

kiln

Requires a

kiln

��C

era

mic

technolo

gy a

llow

ed for th

e d

iscovery

C

era

mic

technolo

gy a

llow

ed for th

e d

iscovery

and im

ple

menta

tion o

f m

eta

llurg

yand im

ple

menta

tion o

f m

eta

llurg

y

Copper

Copper

Sm

eltin

gS

meltin

g

Sm

eltin

g fro

m M

ala

chite O

reS

meltin

g fro

m M

ala

chite O

re

��If the c

opper ore

conta

ined b

oth

quartz a

nd

If the c

opper ore

conta

ined b

oth

quartz a

nd

hem

atite

, th

en these m

ate

rials

would

the iro

n

hem

atite

, th

en these m

ate

rials

would

the iro

n

would

act as a

flu

x for th

e s

ilicate

min

era

ls,

would

act as a

flu

x for th

e s

ilicate

min

era

ls,

resultin

g in a

melt a

t 1120

resultin

g in a

melt a

t 1120°° CC

��H

em

atite

+ Q

uartz =

H

em

atite

+ Q

uartz =

Fayalit

eFayalit

e+ O

xygen

+ O

xygen

��2 F

e2 F

e33OO

44+ 3

SiO

+ 3

SiO

22= 3

Fe

= 3

Fe

22SiO

SiO

44(l)

(l)+ O

+ O

2 (g)

2 (g)

��M

olten

Molten fayalit

efa

yalit

eis

less d

ense than c

opper, s

o the

is less d

ense than c

opper, s

o the

silicate

melt flo

ats

and the c

opper sin

ks

silicate

melt flo

ats

and the c

opper sin

ks

Cru

cib

le S

meltin

gC

rucib

le S

meltin

g

8

Copper from

Sulfid

es

Copper from

Sulfid

es

��As s

urface d

eposits o

f As s

urface d

eposits o

f

Cu

Cu-- c

arb

onate

s w

ere

carb

onate

s w

ere

deple

ted, people

deple

ted, people

turn

ed to the m

ore

tu

rned to the m

ore

abundant C

uabundant C

u-- s

ulfid

e

sulfid

e

min

era

lsm

inera

ls

��R

equires a

n e

xtra

Requires a

n e

xtra

ste

p to p

roduce

ste

p to p

roduce

copper m

eta

lcopper m

eta

l

Roasting o

f R

oasting o

f S

ulfid

icS

ulfid

icO

res

Ore

s

��S

ulfid

icS

ulfid

icore

s a

re roaste

d in a

n o

xygen

ore

s a

re roaste

d in a

n o

xygen-- ric

h

rich

furn

ace to o

xid

ize the o

refu

rnace to o

xid

ize the o

re

��2

2 C

uS

CuS

+ 3

O+ 3

O22

= 2

= 2

CuO

CuO

+ 2

SO

+ 2

SO

22

��The o

xid

ized o

re c

an then b

e s

melted

The o

xid

ized o

re c

an then b

e s

melted

Bro

nze

Bro

nze

��Bro

nze is a

n a

lloy that conta

ins 8

5Bro

nze is a

n a

lloy that conta

ins 8

5-- 9

5%

copper

95%

copper

��Earlie

st bro

nze w

as a

n a

lloy o

f copper and

Earlie

st bro

nze w

as a

n a

lloy o

f copper and

ars

enic

ars

enic

��Ars

enic

al copper

Ars

enic

al copper

��H

ard

er th

an c

opper

Hard

er th

an c

opper

��Sta

ys h

ard

when h

eate

dSta

ys h

ard

when h

eate

d

��Low

er m

eltin

g tem

pera

ture

Low

er m

eltin

g tem

pera

ture

��C

an b

e b

rittle

Can b

e b

rittle

Ars

enic

al C

opper

Ars

enic

al C

opper

��Ars

enic

Ars

enic

-- bearing m

inera

ls

bearing m

inera

ls

com

monly

occur in

epitherm

al

com

monly

occur in

epitherm

al

copper deposits

copper deposits

��First ars

enic

al copper pro

bably

First ars

enic

al copper pro

bably

pro

duced a

ccid

enta

lly b

y

pro

duced a

ccid

enta

lly b

y

sm

eltin

g A

ssm

eltin

g A

s-- b

earing c

opper ore

bearing c

opper ore

��Tennantite

Tennantite

(Cu

(Cu

12

12As

As

44SS

13

13) is

a c

opper

) is

a c

opper

ore

min

era

l th

at is

com

mon in

ore

min

era

l th

at is

com

mon in

epitherm

al deposits a

nd c

onta

ins

epitherm

al deposits a

nd c

onta

ins

substa

ntial am

ounts

of ars

enic

substa

ntial am

ounts

of ars

enic

9

Ars

enic

Pois

onin

gA

rsenic

Pois

onin

g

��W

ork

ing w

ith a

rsenic

al copper w

ould

W

ork

ing w

ith a

rsenic

al copper w

ould

have resulted in a

rsenic

pois

onin

g

have resulted in a

rsenic

pois

onin

g

(( ars

enic

osis

ars

enic

osis

))

��Sym

pto

ms inclu

de

Sym

pto

ms inclu

de liv

idity

livid

ity

of th

e lim

bs

of th

e lim

bs

and s

kin

cancers

and s

kin

cancers

��H

ephaestu

s (G

reek g

od o

f bla

cksm

iths)

Hephaestu

s (G

reek g

od o

f bla

cksm

iths)

and V

ulc

an (R

om

an g

od o

f bla

cksm

iths)

and V

ulc

an (R

om

an g

od o

f bla

cksm

iths)

were

both

lam

e a

nd d

isfigure

dw

ere

both

lam

e a

nd d

isfigure

d

��Lik

ely

a reflection o

f Lik

ely

a reflection o

f ars

enic

osis

ars

enic

osis

whic

h

whic

h

would

have a

fflic

ted b

lacksm

iths w

ho

would

have a

fflic

ted b

lacksm

iths w

ho

work

ed w

ith a

rsenic

al copper

work

ed w

ith a

rsenic

al copper

Tin

Bro

nze

Tin

Bro

nze

��Allo

y o

f copper w

ith tin

Allo

y o

f copper w

ith tin

��Sn

Sn

ore

is m

uch rare

r th

an A

s o

reore

is m

uch rare

r th

an A

s o

re

��First used in T

urk

ey ~

3000 B

CFirst used in T

urk

ey ~

3000 B

C

��M

ay h

ave b

een a

n a

ccid

enta

l dis

covery

M

ay h

ave b

een a

n a

ccid

enta

l dis

covery

because the tin

because the tin

-- bearing m

inera

l bearing m

inera

l sta

nnite

sta

nnite

looks s

imila

r to

the C

ulo

oks s

imila

r to

the C

u-- A

sAs--

bearing m

inera

l bearing m

inera

l te

nnantite

tennantite

��In

bro

ad u

se b

y ~

2000 B

CIn

bro

ad u

se b

y ~

2000 B

C��

Hard

er and less b

rittle

than a

rsenic

al copper

Hard

er and less b

rittle

than a

rsenic

al copper

��N

ot to

xic

Not to

xic

��M

eltin

g tem

pera

ture

of 950

Meltin

g tem

pera

ture

of 950°° CC

Sta

nnite

Tennantite

Iron S

meltin

gIron S

meltin

g

��In

princip

le, Fe s

meltin

g is s

imila

r to

that

In p

rincip

le, Fe s

meltin

g is s

imila

r to

that

of C

uof C

u

��R

educe iro

n o

xid

es to iro

n m

eta

l in

a

Reduce iro

n o

xid

es to iro

n m

eta

l in

a

low

low

-- oxygen furn

ace

oxygen furn

ace

��Fe

Fe

33OO

44+ 4

CO

= 3

Fe +

4 C

O+ 4

CO

= 3

Fe +

4 C

O22

Hem

atite

Iron S

meltin

gIron S

meltin

g

��Iron h

as a

meltin

g tem

pera

ture

of 1538

Iron h

as a

meltin

g tem

pera

ture

of 1538°° CC

��C

ould

not be m

elted in p

rim

itiv

e furn

aces

Could

not be m

elted in p

rim

itiv

e furn

aces

��Solid

iro

n form

s a

Solid

iro

n form

s a

spongey

spongey

mass (blo

om

)m

ass (blo

om

)

��H

ole

s in b

loom

will

conta

in im

purities a

nd s

lag

Hole

s in b

loom

will

conta

in im

purities a

nd s

lag

10

Wro

ught Iron

Wro

ught Iron

��If the iro

n b

loom

is reheate

d

If the iro

n b

loom

is reheate

d

and h

am

mere

d, th

en the

and h

am

mere

d, th

en the

molten im

purities in the

molten im

purities in the

bubble

s c

an b

e w

ork

ed o

ut

bubble

s c

an b

e w

ork

ed o

ut

��R

equires repeate

d h

eating

Requires repeate

d h

eating

and w

ork

ing

and w

ork

ing

��The p

ure

iro

n p

roduct is

The p

ure

iro

n p

roduct is

calle

d

calle

d w

rought iron

wro

ught iron