Mixed scanning model

The mixed scanning model, developed by Etzioni, takes a similar, but slightly different approach. Etzioni (1968) suggested that organizations plan on two different levels: the tactical and the strategic. He posited that organizations could accomplish this by essentially scanning the environment on multiple levels and then choose different strategies and tactics to address what they found there. While Lindbloms approach only operated on the functional level Etzioni argued, the mixed scanning approach would allow planning organizations to work on both the functional and more big-picture oriented levels. Lane explains though, that this model does not do much more at improving public involvement since the planner or planning organization is still at its focus and since its goal is not necessarily to achieve consensus or reconcile differing points of view on a particular subject.

By the late 1960s and early 1970s, planners began to look for new approaches because as happened nearly a decade before, it was realized that the current models were not necessarily sufficient. As had happened before, a number of different models emerged. Lane (2005) notes that it is most useful to think of these model as emerging from a social transformation planning tradition as opposed to a social guidance one, so the emphasis is more bottom-up in nature than it is top-down.

EBENEZER HOWARD GARDENS

Garden Cities of Tomorrow

SIR EBENEZER HOWARD

GARDEN CITIES OF TOMORROW

SAHIL PAHAL (10607) DEEPANSHU SINGH (10639 ...

Urban planning designs settlements, from the smallest towns to the largest cities. Shown here isHong Kongfrom Western District overlookingKowloon, acrossVictoria Harbour.

Bargaining model

The bargaining model views planning as the result of give and take on the part of a number of interests who are all involved in the process. It argues that this bargaining is the best way to conduct planning within the bounds of legal and political institutions.

The most interesting part of this theory of planning is that makes public participation the central dynamic in the decision-making process.

Decisions are made first and foremost by the public, and the planner plays a more minor role.

THEORY OF URBAN DESIGN

I. CONCEPT OF SPACETRADITIONAL DEFINITIONSOxford English Dictionary:Two meanings of space:Time or durationArea or extension (more common definition) In physics, space has three dimensions (x-y-z axes) and is considered as a volume not an area.

Sir Isaac Newton (17th C) elaborated that space is absolute.proper to itself..and independent of the objects it contains (objects fit into space an d not vice-versa)

NEW APPROACHESTwo main categories of space exist:Mental Space (experiential)Physical Space (existential) The notion of space is said to originate in an observers mind and is later imposed as a structure on the physical world.mental space is an image of physical space

The concept of space differs from culture to cultureDifferent cultures have characteristic spatial designs as expressed in their cities, buildings, and art(ref. Dogon villages; japanese Mandala e.t.c)

but space itself is universal! (transcends culture)

II. THE CONCEPT OF AESTHETICSAesthetics in urban design refers to the creative arrangement of the elements of a town in a beautiful and functional manner.

Order and beauty in a town are a necessity, not an after thought..they are as much a prerequisite to human health as is fresh air.

SITE-CITY-OBSERVER RELATIONSHIPS (VIEWING CITY FROM SURROUNDING AND VICE-VERSA)Extracted form: harmony between buildings and nature.e.g consider basic slopes, angle of hills, vegetation/tree canopies, and rock outcrops. Reflects dominant and pervasive features of nature Vistas and site supremacy: view of landscape from the citybeautifully framed countryside (panorama)Expression: space markers /symbolgy/ ornamentation/detail e.g towers and minarets; landmarks; accent of urban landscape and skylineEntrance/Approach: profound impact of cities on the visitor who traverses long, crowded streets/water.Colour and light: choice of colour to reflect aesthetic sensibility; quality of natural light an important visual factor.Water: proximity to water and possible interplay a natural asset; water edges, harbours, shorelines, islands, canals e.t.cGeometry: form and relationships of angles, lines, curves e.t.cHuman scale: how each inhabitant would use space and how they would feel in it.

ASPECTS OF URBAN FORM (SEE BUR 203 NOTES)Imageability: Physical Image v/s Functional ImageForm-Function RelationshipMain Variations of urban form and structure: Linear, radial, grid, cluster e.t.cObjectives of urban form (includes growth; Meaning and identity e.t.c)Growth and decline

EXISTING THEORIES AND PRACTICE Theories that have motivated and still inform the construction of cities are both normative and functional.

Normative theories attempt to specify "goodness.what is good city form?... and discuss in detail the aspects that create good cities..Prescriptive..What cities ought to be!

Functional theories attempt to explain how cities perform by concentrating on city form processes, spatial and social structure, and form modelsDescriptiveWhat cities are!

NORMATIVE THEORIES (SELECTED EXAMPLES)1. THE COSMIC MODELIt assertions that the form of a permanent settlement should be a magical model of the universe and its gods.

Such a crystalline city has all of its parts fused into a perfectly ordered whole and change is allowed to happen only in a rhythmically controlled manner

specific phenomena included: such as returning, natural items, celestial measurement, fixing location, centeredness, boundary definition, earth images, land geometry, directionality, place consciousness, and numerology

2. THE MACHINE MODEL The analogy between city and machine has a long history (ref. Egyptian and classical per strigas, Ron Herons insect city; archigram movement; plug-in concept)

it occurs often when there is no long-term goal in mind but the settlement has to be created hurriedly and its future growth will be determined by still unforeseen forces

Its form requires a few simple rules of urbanization and the outcome is factual, functional and devoid of the mystery of the universe.

Among its attributes are convenience, speed, flexibility, legibility, equality, and speculation.

3. THE ORGANIC MODEL The analogy between city and living organism is fairly recent arising with the growth of biology in the 18th and 19th centuries (ref. metabolists)

Model is critical of others, especially the machine model with its "simple grids" as static

It asserts that an organism:

- is an autonomous being, with a definite boundary and is of a specific size. -does not change merely by adding parts but through reorganization as it reaches limits or thresholds. - contains differentiated parts but form and function are always linked. - is homeostatic, self-repairing and regulating toward a dynamic balance. - undergoes cycles of life and death as is rhythmic passage from one state to another.

ORGANIC MODEL (CONTD)From this flows the notion of the form of the organic city: - A separate spatial and social unit made up internally of highly connected places and people.

-A healthy community of heterogeneous and diverse nature

- The micro unit is the neighborhood, a small residential area, defined by Clarence Perry in 1929 as the support area for an elementary school, to which children, the most vulnerable of the human species, can safely walk.

- Like organisms, settlements are born, grow and mature, and if further growth is necessary, a new entity has to be formed.Thus there are states of optimum size, beyond which pathological conditions ensue.

ORGANIC MODEL (CONTD) - Greeenbelts not only ensure an intimate contact with nature but enclose healthy growth. -A model with typical physical forms, among which radial patterns, anti-geometrical layouts, and a proclivity for natural materials.

- Often the organic idea is extended regionally to connect settlements to valleys, trails and other extended natural systems.

-There is an attraction to small-scale modes of production or services as opposed to large-scale synthetic processes. Often the model aligns itself with a socio-economic philosophy that sees increases in urban value as the result of communal rather than individual endeavor.

4. THE CONTEXTUAL MODELThis relates new development to an analysis of existing urban structure.

A prominent concept of this canon is that of serial vision . the sequential and unfolding nature of urban experience (foreground/middle ground/background), with its corners, divisions/modules, protrusions, and recesses/setbacks e.t.c creating aspects of interest and surprise.

Context is something that has no clear or common spatial definition; thus the impact of contextualism will vary with geographical location and cultural influence.

The mainstream urban design has been strongly influenced by contextualism in terms of a new respect for the overall form of the traditional urban street and block and a concern for public realm

(ref:Imageability (Kevin Lynch); permeability (Jane Jacobs); adaptability/robustness (Standford Anderson). These ideas were later published as Responsive Environments (Alcock et al)

5. THE PRAGMATIC MODELThis is whereby urban design is defined according to the needs of the epoch.. where the tools and concepts are used selectively and exclusively in regard to the locality. The danger with this model lies in: -Likely loss of understanding of the larger processes affecting urban form - Possible inability of making informed decisions at urban scales - Failure to embrace environmental disciplines that are currently excluded and isolated from mainstream urban design.

6. THE CONSTRUCTIVIST MODELThis explores techniques of form to create urban interventions that express the spatial and temporal complexity of a given age.

Deconstructionists are constructivists who use unconventional techniques of form to express the essential fragmentation in city environments.

Ref. Peter Eisenman applies an approach that is more mathematical and rational in nature, which tends to reject any hint of historical contextualism. Rem Koolhaas makes free use of the typologies of modernism, recombining them in new and ironic ways Bernard Tschumi, exploits the random collisions that results from the layering of unrelated activity frameworks. Frank Ghery and Zaha Hadid use unconventional techniques of form to express order among chaos of modern cities

7. FUNCTIONALIST MODELThis was dedicated to exploring new interwoven urban structures that would allow opportunities for social encounter/contact and exchange whose end result is a humanising influence.

The interpretation of this philosophy, however, varied widely in practice: low-, medium-, and high- density; vehicular and pedestrian segregation e.t.c

( Ref:Aldo van Eyck, Ralph erskine, Giancarlo De Carlo)

8. RATIONALIST MODELThis offered a morphological/structural approach to urban design that related new urban development to the historical structure of the city and typologies of urban space.

The figure-ground drawing was widely used as a design tool.

As critical reconstruction, this method was used to maintain and restore the traditional 19th century street pattern and form of the urban block, street and square, without constraining the contemporary architectural expression of new building additions.

This was not a plea for unthinking preservation or for regarding the city as a museum; rather, the aim was to explore the deep structure inherent in building types and how built forms accommodate changing, living uses over time.

(ref. Robert Venturi, Aldo Rossi, Scott Brown, Colin Rowe, Rob & Leon Krier)

FUNCTIONAL DESCRIPTIVE THEORIES These are founded on the following characteristics:Urban history: the city is regarded as a unique historic process... explaining cities as derivative of their own culture (ref Sjoberg, Rapoport).

Urban Ecology: city is regarded as an ecology of people, each social group occupying space according to economic position and class. (Ref. Burgess [concentric model], Weber, Simmel and Spengler)

City economy: regards the city as an economic engine in which space, unlike in the previous category, is both a resource and an additional cost imposed on the economy for production or consumption.location of cities an optimization of raw materials, labour and market locations (ref. Isard,Von Thunen,Christaller)

FUNCTIONAL DESCRIPTIVE THEORIES (CONTD)Six (6) Functional Theories founded on the following characteristics;

Urban HistoryUrban EcologyCity EconomyUrban CommunicationUrban Politics/GovernanceUrban Chaos

The modern origins of urban planning lie in the movement for urban reform that arose as a reaction against the disorder of the industrial city in the mid-19th century.

Urban planning exists in various forms and it addresses many different issues.[2] Urban planning can include

URBAN RENEWAL, by adapting urban planning methods to existing cities suffering from decline. Alternatively, it can concern the massive challenges associated with urban growth, particularly in the Global South.[3]

In the late 20th century, the term SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT has come to represent an ideal outcome in the sum of all planning goals.[4]URBAN PLANNING APPROACHES

There are eight (8) procedural theories of planning that remain the principal theories of planning procedure today:

the rational-comprehensive approach, the incremental approach, the transactive approach, the communicative approach, the advocacy approach, the equity approach, the radical approach, the humanist or phenomenological approach.

Following the rise of empiricism during the industrial revolution, the rational planning movement (18901960) emphasized the improvement of the built environment based on key spatial factors. Examples of these factors include: exposure to direct sunlight, movement of vehicular traffic, standardized housing units, and proximity to green-space.[5] To identify and design for these spatial factors, rational planning relied on a small group of highly specialized technicians, including;

architects, urban designers, and engineers. Other, less common, but nonetheless influential groups included governmental officials, private developers, and landscape architects.

Through the strategies associated with these professions, the rational planning movement developed a collection of techniques for quantitative assessment, predictive modeling, and design. Due to the high level of training required to grasp these methods, however, rational planning fails to provide an avenue for public participation. In both theory and practice, this shortcoming opened rational planning to claims of elitism and social insensitivity.

Rational-comprehensive planning theory Public interest Planning Expertise In comprehensive-rational planning the public interest as the goal of planning is defi ned within the contest of planning expertise

Synoptic planning

After the fall of blueprint planning in the late 1950s and early 1960s, the synoptic model began to emerge as a dominant force in planning. Lane (2005) describes synoptic planning as having four central elements:

(1) an enhanced emphasis on the specification of goals and targets; (2) an emphasis on quantitative analysis and predication of the environment; (3) a concern to identify and evaluate alternative policy options; and (4) the evaluation of means against ends .

Public participation was first introduced into this model and it was generally integrated into the system process described above. However, the problem was that the idea of a single public interest still dominated attitudes, effectively devaluing the importance of participation because it suggests the idea that the public interest is relatively easy to find and only requires the most minimal form of participation.[10]

Blueprint and synoptic planning both employ what is called the rational paradigm of planning. The rational model is perhaps the most widely accepted model among planning practitioners and scholars, and is considered by many to be the orthodox view of planning. As its name clearly suggests, the goal of the rational model is to make planning as rational and systematic as possible. Proponents of this paradigm would generally come up with a list of steps that the planning process can be at least relatively neatly sorted out into and that planning practitioners should go through in order when setting out to plan in virtually any area. As noted above, this paradigm has clear implications for public involvement in planning decisions.[10]