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1Organisational Change Chapter 8
Soft Systems Model forChange
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Overview
This chapter challenges the notion of rationality as applied to organisational change in thecontext of soft complexity .Lewins three -phase model of change isdescribed as a simplified representation of amore detailed description of organisationaldevelopment as an approach to change.
Some limitations of organisational developmentas a change philosophy and as a changeapproach are discussed.
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Objectives To:
recognise that some change situations
(problems/opportunities), by nature of theircomplexity and particular characteristics, requiresoft rather than hard systems approaches tochange;
consider the philosophy, value orientation andtheoretical underpinnings of OrganisationDevelopment (OD) as a generalised example of softsystems models for change;outline and describe the processes and practiceswhich comprise most OD approaches to designingand implementing organisational change;discuss the limitations of OD approaches tomanaging change.
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Why Mess Management Is Needed - 1
Various factors such as power
bases, organisational culture ,leadership styles, and changes inthe organisations environment , can
in many cases make organisationalchange a lot more technicallycomplex and emotionally charged
(therefore messy) than the HardSystems Model of Change canadequately deal with.
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People act in accordance with theirown view of what is rational forthem.
They are not puppets, dummies,cogs, cattle.
Why Mess Management Is Needed - 2
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Why Mess Management Is Needed - 3 The Hard Systems model of change
is not likely to be effective:where the nature of the presentingproblems is defined differently bydifferent people (stakeholders) in thesituation.and where quantitative criteria cannot readily be agreed upon.
and where systems are complex .and where a pluralist ideology ofrelationships prevails.
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7So how can managers deal with messes?
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The Art and Science of Mess Management - 1
Ackoff (1993:47) suggests there are 3 kinds of things which can be done about messes. The firsttwo are:
Resolve them
Select a hunch that yields a good enoughoutcome - one that satisfi c es (satisfies and suffices). Patch and mend, survival-oriented .
Solve them
Select quantitative approaches based on researchand rational-logical methods of analysis. Focuses on the trees rather than on the wood; atomistic .
Ackoff, R.L. (1993). The art and science of mess management, in Mabey, C. and Mayon-White, B. (eds) Managing Change . London, P.C.P.
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The Art and Science of Mess Management - 2 The third of Ackoffs (1993: 47) ways of tackling messes is:
Dissolve them - idealising Change the nature of the problem context
(or system involved) so as to remove theproblem.
Development oriented eager to improvequality of life for self and others.
Resigning systems at various levels of the
organisation to dissolve the problem This is what the soft systems approachtries to do.
Ackoff, R.L. (1993). The art and science of mess management, in Mabey, C. and Mayon-White, B. (eds) Managing Change . London, P.C.P.
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Change is only effective when
peoples feelings, needs,perceptions, ways of doing things &hopes are addressed. AND
messy situations require managersto dissolve existing problems, bychallenging underlying purposesand assumptions.
The Art and Science of Mess Management - 3
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The Art and Science of Mess Management - 4
For the manager who wishes to dissolve
problems, Buchanan and Boddy (1992)suggest:
backstaging, not just public
performance political skills behind the scenes intervening in political and cultural
systems managing meaning selling the
change
Ackoff, R.L. (1993). The art and science of mess management, in Mabey, C. and Mayon-White, B. (eds) Managing Change . London, P.C.P.
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Differences Between Hard & Soft Change Approaches
HARDClear goals and objectivesQuantifiable dataControl mechanisms areclearPower is clear, known to
workUnitary view oforganisationEvolved first to meetneeds of modern
engineering and industrialsystemsAims to solve problemsAnalyst detached fromsituation
SOFT Organisations as socialentitiesGoals need negotiationDifferent perspectivesPower diffuse and
frequently unknownConsensus view/conflictview of organisationEvolved later (1960s) inresponse to difficulties in
using hard approachesAims to appreciate andimprove problemsAnalyst part of the situation
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Organisation Development - 1
Organization development (OD) is a long term
effort, led and supported by top management, toimprove an organizations visioning,empowerment, learning, and problem-solvingprocesses , through an ongoing, collaborativemanagement of the organization culture - withspecial emphasis on the culture of intact workteams and other team configurations - utilizing theconsultant- facilitator role and the theory andtechnology of applied behavioural science,
including action research .
(French, W.L. and Bell, C.H, (1995). Organization Development: Behavioural Science Interventions for Organization Improvement , Fifth edition, Prentice-Hall, p.28.).
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Organisation Development - 2
Organization development is an ongoing
process of change aimed at resolving issueswithin an organization through the effectivediagnosis and management of the organizationsculture . This development process usesbehavioral and social science techniques andmethodologies through a consultant facilitatorand employs action-research as one of the mainmechanism for instigating change inorganizational groups. (McCalman, J & Paton, R (1992). Change Management Guide to Effective Implementation , London, P.C.P. p 131).
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Basic Assumptions of OD as a Model for Change - 1
It emphasises goals and processes withemphasis on processesIt deals with change over medium andlong-termIt is about people and recognises theirworthIt involves the organisation as a whole
as well as its partsIt emphasises the concept of a changeagent/facilitator
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Basic Assumptions of OD as a Model for Change - 2
It uses action research as a means ofinterventionIt is participative , drawing on theory andpractices of the behavioural sciencesIt subscribes to a humanistic philosophyof opennessIt is a process of facilitation at the
individual, group and organisational levelIt has top-management support andinvolvement
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Learning Organisation - 1More recently, the concept of a learning
organisation has been blended in withOD.Central ideas of the LO: A process approach to change in which
everything, including existing goals and thegoal setting processes, is subject tochallenge.
Double-loop learning. Change is continuous . Development of the organisation is treated
as being central to its well-being.
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Learning Organisation - 2
More central ideas of the LO: Shared visioning Proactive learning
Continuous experimentation & risktaking
Leaders as facilitators and learning
leaders Team learning
Wh O i i D l I
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Source: Mintzberg, H. (1973), The Nature of Managerial Work, Harper & Row.
Why Organisation Development Is So Important - 1
The volume of change in many organisations ismassive
The economic scene places demands on managerswhile they are reluctant to change from tried and
tested methodsThe role of management is changing and new modelsare needed
Change management takes timeSome changes challenge basic assumptions, forexample, the role of supervisory staff
Wh O i i D l I
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Source: Mintzberg, H. (1973), The Nature of Managerial Work, Harper & Row.
Why Organisation Development Is So Important - 2
The need for control remains - the skill is remainingin control when so much change is going on.
More comprehensive strategic pictures are neededwhich integrate different changes in the
organisation and alleviate confusion.Organisation design and re-design are as importantand necessary as product, process or system
design and are the responsibility of managementand people in organisations, not just specialists.
L i Th St P t Ch i
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Lewins Three Step Process to Changing Behaviour
UNFREEZING
Resistance to change lessened,need for change created(Equilibrium disturbed)
MOVING From old behaviour
to the new(Changes )
REFREEZING
Change madepermanent
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Unfreezing
Shaking up
Disconfirmation of old ways of doingthingsQuestioning & challenging ofestablished wisdom
M i
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Moving
Making the actual changes to move tothe new state of existence.Includes the development of newstrategies, structures, systems &
responsibilities and the shedding of oldones.
R f i
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Refreezing
Stabilizing, institutionalising thechanges.Making sure the organisation doesn't gobackwards to the old state.
Reinforcement of the changes throughsymbols, such as changed logos, dress,building design, structures.
R f i ???
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Refreezing???
Re-freezing may not be appropriate inan era of continuous change, so maybethis stage involves something more likestabilising.
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Th OD M d l f Ch 1
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The OD Model for Change - 1
A number of elements distinguish this
approach from the hard systems modelof change discussed in Chapter 7.Change is not a one -off event, but is
rather an iterative, cyclical process whichis continuous as part of everydayorganisational life.
Components of the model are diagnosis ,data gathering , feedback to the clientgroup, data discussion and work by theclient group, action planning and action .
Th OD M d l f Ch 2
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The OD Model for Change - 2
These components may form cycles of activitywithin each stage of the OD process.The OD approach to change is firmly embedded inthe assumption that all who are or who might beinvolved in any change should be part of the
decision-making process to decide what thatchange might be and to bring it about.It is not a project planned and implemented bysenior managers with the assumption that otherworkers in the organisation will automatically goalong with it.
A ti R h 1
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Action Research - 1Action research is central to EACH
STAGE of the OD process.It is a collaborative effort between theleaders and facilitators of any changeand those who have to enact it.It involves data gathering , feedback ofdata to the client group, datadiscussion , action planning , and action .
Therefore, action research is, as itsname suggests, a combination ofresearch and action.
A ti R h 2
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Action Research - 2 Action research involves collecting data
relevant to the situation of interest,feeding back the results to those whomust take action, collaborativelydiscussing the data to formulate anaction plan, and finally, taking thenecessary action.
Th OD d l f h g
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The OD model for change PRESENT STATE
(1a)Diagnose current
situation
(5)Assess and
reinforcechange
(2)Gain
commitmentto the vision (3)
Develop anaction plan
(4) Implement
change
JOURNEY TO THE FUTURE
St 1 U d t di P t &
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Stage 1 - Understanding Present &Future States
At stages 1a and 1b the issues, problemsand opportunities are to be fully exploredand the (generally) multiple perspectives of
people in the change situation should beunderstood.Diagnosing the current situation should notbe rushed through without sufficientconsideration of the underlying issues aswell as the presenting ones.
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Stage 2 - Gaining Commitment to the Vision
Once the vision for change has taken shape(stage 1b), commitment to it has to be gained.
Consequently, sharing the vision with allconcerned is important, which might mean areview, again, of the vision for change.It is vital to listen to the organisation - people'sresponses in words and deeds to the visionproposal.
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Stage 3: Develop an Action Plan (1)
Stage 3 is complex and requiresmuch consultation and gaining the
participation of those who mustenact the change .Possible resistance to change mustbe addressed.
Pughs Principles of Change 1
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Pugh s Principles of Change -1
Principle 1: Organisations are organisms
adequacy of planning adequacy of persuasion
adequacy of digestion
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Pughs Principles of Change - 2 Principle 2: Organisations are
occupational and political systems
account taken of occupational
impact account taken of political
impact
P h P i i l f Ch 3
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Pughs Principles of Change - 3 Principle 3: All members of anorganisation operate simultaneously in allthree systems - the rational, theoccupational, the political
appropriateness of starting site appropriateness of methods used
Stage 3: Develop an Action Plan (2)
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Stage 3: Develop an Action Plan (2) The role of the change agent is important in thewhole of stage 3. Debates occur as to whether the
use of an internal or external change agent ispreferable.Buchanan and Boddy (1992) have written aboutCHANGE AGENTS competencies.
Sensitive, clear, flexible goal setting. Team building, networking , handling ambiguity. Communicating , dealing with people and
meetings,enthusing, motivating. Selling, negotiating. Dealing with the politics , influencing, the broader
view.
Stage 3: Develop an Action Plan (3)
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Stage 3: Develop an Action Plan (3)
CHANGE AGENTS help the
organisation to:Define the problem.Examine and diagnose the problem.Come up with alternative solutions .Direct implementation of solutions.
Crystallise the learning .
l l ( )
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Stage 3: Develop an Action Plan (4)
Responsibility charting helps in theassessment of the alternative behaviours forthose involved in the series of actions forchange.
It involves identifying and assigning thespecific people involved in each action ordecision. who is responsible (one person). who are the approval givers (not too many). who are the supporters, resource providers (vital). who should be be informed.
A R ibili Ch
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ActorsActions
A B C D E F G1 R A A I I S
2 S R A I I I
3 S R A S
4 S I A R I
5 S A R A
6 I A R S
R= responsible
A = approval giver, can veto S = must support; provide resources I = to be informed
A Responsibility Chart
S 3 D l A i Pl (5)
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Stage 3: Develop an Action Plan (5)
Possible stakeholders who are startingpoints for change:Top management.Groups who are management -ready, i.e.ready for change. Includes h urting systems. Those in pain.New teams or systems.
Change agents . Staff members who willfacilitate subsequent change . Temporary change implementation projectteams.
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Stage 3: Develop an Action Plan (6)
Pughs (1986) OD matrix on p. 323 isvery useful in deciding where, in anorganisation, change efforts should startand be planned.
start with desired behaviour that needs tochange.
move to organising the system , structure,
info. flows, etc. that may need to change. move to organise the contextual setting
that may also need to change.
The Pugh OD Matrix
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The Pugh OD Matrix Problems
Behaviour Structureetc.
Context
Org level Poor orgclimate
Wrongstructure
Wrongstrategy
Inter-groupLack ofcooperation
Poor co-ordination
Distance
Grouplevel
Poor teamspirit
Uncleargroup task
Poorresources
Individuallevel
Dissatisfiedperson
Poorlydefined job
Poorapplicationof HRM
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The Pugh OD Matrix Remedies
Behaviour Structureetc.
Context
Org level Surveyfeedback
Changestructure
Changestrategy
Inter-groupRolenegotiation
Improveliaison
Bringgroupscloser
Group
level
Teambuilding
Redesignworksystem
Changetechnologyor staffing
Individuallevel
Counselling Jobenrichment
ImproveHRM
St 3 D l A ti Pl (7)
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Stage 3: Develop an Action Plan (7) Decide what needs to change:
behaviour systems/structure, or contexts
Action plan must be:relevantspecificintegratedin the right time frameadaptable
Stage 4 Implement the Change
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Stage 4 Implement the Change
Stages 4 (and 5) of the OD processImplementing and assessing andreinforcing the change can make use of a range of techniques, some of them
identified on the Pugh OD matrix.
Implement the Change (2) - Facilitated
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Implement the Change (2) Facilitated Activities 1
Survey feedback . Employee opinionsurvey.Organisational mirroring. Focal group getsfeedback from other groups about how itis perceived and regarded. Reciprocal.Fishbowl technique. Inter-group confrontation. Each group lists
its complaints about the other as well aswhat it thinks the other group has as acomplaint against itself.
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Implement the Change (2) Facilitated Activities 2
Role negotiation . Focus on eachothers behaviours and negotiate anincrease, decrease or status quo.Process consultation . The consultantengages in feedback,coaching,counselling, and helps individuals and
groups finds their own solutions.
Implement the Change (3) - Facilitated
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Implement the Change (3) Facilitated Activities 3
Team Building - focus on the teamprocesses, culture and responsibilities. Life and career planning - Life linedrawing, connecting past, present &future. Write your own obituary.Plus various other methods for designing
structures and contexts.
Implement the Change (4)
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Implement the Change (4)
Go for a series of SHORT-TERM WINS , visible
outcomes (short term goals) that: show that sacrifices are worthwhile reward change agents
help fine tune the visions and strategies counterbalance the cynics keep bosses happy build momentum
Stage 5: Assessing and Reinforcing
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Stage 5: Assessing and Reinforcing Change
Hard change is relatively easy toassess Set hard objectives and quantifiable
performance measures
Soft change is more difficult toassess
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Assessing the Soft Elements of Change
Survey or cultural audit.
Interviews with individuals or focusgroups.
Examination of turnover and absenteeismrates.
Analysis (through observation orquestionnaire) of group performance.
Picturing the organisation - ask staff toportray the org in pictures, not words.
Reinforcing and Consolidating Change
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g g g
Design appraisal, career and reward systems
which help reinforce desired behaviours.
Orientate staff training and development to
the new vision and the new situation.Hold people accountable for maintaining the
vision and continuing to implement the
change.
Iteration
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Iteration At all these stages, as Figure 8.2 on p.
312 shows, the requirement of iteration back to previous stages and thenforwards again with modified plans and
actions is crucial to the way the ODprocess operates.
An Assessment of the OD Model for
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An Assessment of the OD Model forChange (1)
Three of the criticisms that have beenaimed at this model for change are:1. OD does not always face up to the harsh realities of
change. (Rather than unfreezing, people need to beshaken up.)
2. OD is limited when change situations areconstrained. (Diagnosis and vision already set).
3.OD does not always fit with the policies and practicesof bureaucracy, political systems
An Assessment of the OD Model for
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An Assessment of the OD Model forChange (2)
A fourth criticism of the soft systems modelfor change is 4. The claim that OD cannot be applied in the same way
across all cultures.Supposedly it is not suited to high Power Distance, high
Uncertainty Avoidance, and high Masculinity cultures.
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An Assessment of the OD Model forChange (3)
Given these criticisms, care has to be takenthat the OD process is modified to suit differentcircumstances.It must also be recognised that, in times ofcrisis , managers may have to act very fastand... it may not be possible to put into practice the full
consultation and participation that is built into theOD process.