History Preguntas y Respuestas

8/6/2019 History Preguntas y Respuestas

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UNIT 1 Prehistoric Britain

1. What were the main characteristics of the First Settlers

of Britain and Ireland?

In the late ice Age, when Britain was still joined by a land bridge toEurope, bands of hunter nomads roamed what is now southernEngland.

250.000 y ago, the first known inhabitant lived in the valley wherethe Kentish town of Swanscombe now stands. His tribe shared theforests with the prehistoric animals, that meant two things to them:

meat and danger. There were straight-tusked elephants, giganticcattle called aurochs, two species of fearsome rhinoceroses, horsesand red deer. Armed only with wooden spears, the Swanscombehunters tracked their prey in the forests of oak, elm and viburnum.After a kill, they skinned and butchered the animal.

Swanscombe man probably had a beetling brow and a massive jaw.Only three of his skull bones have survived, but experts believe thathe was not very different from men of today, with a very similar brainsize. His life was precarious. Disease and hunting accidents must

have taken a heavy toll. The bones which have been found belong tosomeone who died young, probably aged only 20 or 25 y old. Themost tantalising question about Swanscombe man is wether heunderstood the secret of fire.

2. What were the most relevant Neolithic changes?

The arrival of the first farmers in Britain and their settlement in thesouth of England, brought about one of the greatest changes in the

history of the island. The farmers brought not only seeds of barleyand of wheat, but sheep and cattle.

Life was very hard for a Neolithic person, and in many ways, it was amore arduous form of existence.

Agriculture helped to increase the population to many times what ithad been in the hunting and gathering era of around 8000 BC. Men



were able to observe the sun, the moon and the stars. They usedtheir knowledge to build stone circles in which the stones weremeticulously placed.

3. How did they build Stonehenge?

It was built in 4 periods and it is unique, and represents theculmination of a very long tradition of building with large stones.

4. What were the new materials and tools used in the

Bronze Age?

The Wessex people brought the rich metal resources of Britain under

their control, and founded a culture of exceptional wealth and power.Southwards, they were within easy reach of the English Channel andcontinental trade routes.

The Wessex chieftains could exchange the grain, wool and hidesproduced by their peasant subjects for the precious metals of Ireland,Cornwall, Wales and northern England. They worked the valuable tin,copper and gold ores to create useful tools and beautiful ornaments.

5. What does ritual Landscape mean?

They are places that, once upon a time, had been religious, they tendto have standing stones (Stonehenge) , they can also contain smallgraves, artificial ponds, wooden structures...

6. Enumerate the main features of Celtic Art.

La Tène art is considered to be the first definitive Celtic art. Initially,

it¶s fantastic imagery often included interpretations of classical andoriental forms. Like Celtic character, Celtic art was energetic,exuberant and explosive, and yet at the same time full of humour. Byabout 200 BC ,an essentially British style of Celtic art began toappear under Continental influence. Individual µschools¶ of artists,working under the patronage of wealthy chieftains, developed theirown distinctive styles.



7. Describe the construction of the Hill-Fort defences.

Most hill-forts occupied an impressive hilltop spur, fortified againstattack from hill or valley. Many went out of use as major centres

around 50 bc, for reasons which are not clear. There is no reason tosuppose that their main function was defence against attack. The actof enclosure could be a response to a number of needs, both socialand ritual, while the massive defence and gates could have beendesigned to impress rather than to deter, proclaiming the status of the occupants.

8. What were the most important changes in the Iron Age?

There was an interaction between the µcivilised µcultures of theMediterranean sphere (Greeks, Etruscans, Phoenicians, Romans) andthe µbarbarians¶ beyond, played out over a period of some 800 y. Thesea allowed adjacent communities to keep in contact with oneanother, exchanging ideas and gifts, trading in a number of commodities, among them the metals in which the region was sovery rich. In Ireland, Iron Age settlements were more elusive, but anumber of hilltop enclosures have been found.

9. Why was religion so important in Prehistoric times?

It was the µhero¶ and big solution against a great enemy, the devil.Churches were seen as places to keep safe. People have become lessand less religious throughout the years, but in the old ages, religionwas very highly considered, almost everyone was religious once upona time.

10 . Who were druids?

Knowledge of the Druids comes directly from classical writers of theirtime. Druids managed the higher legal system and the courts of appeal, and their colleges in Britain were famous throughout thecontinent. Their knowledge of astronomy may have descended fromthe priests of megalithic times, together with the spiritual secrets of the landscape.



The president of the order, who was elected, served for life, andenjoyed absolute authority all over the Druids

11 . Describe the main symbolic features of Stonehenge.

Stonehenge is the stone circle with highest stones in the whole of Britain!

Stonehenge is unique, and represents the culmination of a very longtradition of building with large stone.

It is the focal point of the densest concentration of Neolithic andbronze age monuments anywhere in Britain.

It has very long history of building and alteration. Excavations have

shown that four main periods can be recognised in the building anduse of Stonehenge.

12 . Explain the evolution that occurred in Britain from the

Neolithic to the Iron Age.

The arrival of the first farmers in Britain and their settlement in thesouth of England, brought about one of the greatest changes in thehistory of the island. The farmers brought not only seeds of barley

and wheat, but sheep and cattle. They introduced new types of stonetools including sickles. With their flint axes, they hacked out cleaningsin the woods, which covered most of the country.

In good years, enough grain could be grown to last through a leanwinter. The tools were primitive. Digging sticks were used for plantingand hoeing.

Agriculture helped to increase the population.

In the Neolithic, man began building huge earthwork enclosures, or

henges. These henges acted as religious centres for large areas andwere used for over 500 y.

Agriculture had reached a stage where men could be spared from thefield for long stretches. This had been achieved in a mere 1500 y.

It was the most important turning point since the introduction of farming. In the Neolithic period, men were able to observe the sun,



the moon and the stars. They used their knowledge to build stonecircles in which the stones were meticulously placed.

An increasingly large and complex society soon began to construct it¶sfirst full-scale monuments. Around them were dug a series of ditches,

which in places were bridged by solid causeways. These causewayedcamps were certainly not inhabited all the year round.

In this period, a definable social structure began to emerge in Britain.

Stonehenge: It is unique; it represents the culmination of a very longtradition of building with large stones.

It is unknown what religious beliefs Stonehenge represents, or whatforms of worship or ceremonies took place within it

The Boyne Ritual Landscape in Country Meath, Ireland, is one of the

most complex in the British Isles.

This place presents one of the best examples of such a group of monuments anywhere in Europe.

Bronze Age: The Bronze age in Britain and Ireland covers the periodfrom about 2400 to about 700 BC . Initially, there were strongelements of continuity with Neolithic traditions, with the ongoing useof stone circles and communal burials in chambered tombs. In theBronze Age, the old ancestral tombs were no longer used, and some

of them were blocked. New traditions had arisen, including that of individual elite burials under cairns or barrows. The best-knownexample from this time is Stonehenge, where the sarsen circle, andlater the horseshoe setting inside it, had been set up within the oldhenge.

New materials and Tools

The Wessex people brought the rich metal resources of Britain undertheir control, and founded a culture of exceptional wealth and power.

Southwards, they were within easy reach of the English Channel andcontinental trade routes.

The Wessex chieftains could exchange the grain, wool and hidesproduced by their peasant subjects for the precious metals of Ireland,Cornwall, Wales and northern England.



They worked the valuable tin, copper and gold ores to create usefultools and beautiful ornaments.

Fostered by contacts with metal working on the continent, Britishtrade and production in bronze reached its peak in the 8 th century BC.

But during the next two centuries, knowledge of an even better metalwas beginning to spread to the island: iron. It was abundant,widespread and much more durable than the medals they had beenusing.

As supplies of bronze increased in Britain, so did the technical abilitiesof the bronze smiths.

Bronze Age monuments were certainly spectacular, but they werecomparatively few in number. In the late Bronze Age and during thegreater part of the Iron Age (the last millennium bc), new types of

monuments such as hill-forts appeared and new iron weapons beganto emerge.

In the Iron age, there was an interaction between the µcivilised¶ cultures of the Mediterranean sphere (Greeks, Etruscans, Phoeniciansand Romans) and the µbarbarians¶ beyond, played out over a periodof some 800 y. It began in the eigth century BC, when the Greeksand Phoenicians were starting to colonise the Mediterranean coasts.

13 . Compare the effects the Celtic settlement had on

England and Europe

The first written historical reference to the Celts is around 450 BCwhen the Greek historian Herodotus told of Celtic settlements nearthe source of the Danube. From this point on, the migration of theCelts is recorded all over Europe.

The Celts, a warrior people, spread across much of Europethroughout the 5th and 4th centuries BC. Many established themselves

in well-defended hill-forts in the south and west of England.When the Romans came to Britain in 55 BC, British craftsmen werelavishing their skills on objects used to display wealth a nd status,.These objects were weapons, shields, helmets and horse trapping.



The coming of Christianity brought with it µRomanitas¶ the culture of Rome. Native Celtic tradition now fused with these new ideas tocreate an extremely rich cultural environment.

Although Gaelic identity was stimulated by the coming of the Vikings,

native Gaelic society and culture was profoundly changed followingthe Anglo- Norman invasion of the 12 th century.

14 . Write about the major forms and manifestations of

Celtic Art in Britain.

La Téne art is considered to be the first definitive Celtic Art. Initially,its fantastic imagery often included interpretations of classical andoriental forms, but later, its distinctive styles were more reminiscent

of plant forms. La téne culture reached its flowering in the 3rd

centuryBC.

Like Celtic character, Celtic art was energetic, exuberant andexplosive,, and yet at the same time full of humour. By about 200BC, an essentially British style of Celtic art began to appear u ndercontinental influence

15 . Outline the situation of Britain at the Romans¶ arrival.

Before Britain became a province of the Roman Empire, it was splitinto warring tribes ,but the Romans established law and order amongthem.

UNIT 2 Roman period and the Great invations

1. Why did the Romans come to Britain?

The Romans knew little of Britain. It was reported to be rich and thatthere was gold and pearl fishing. Its slaves were highly valued, and itexported tin and copper. Apart from that, it was a place of mystery,the centre of the druidic religion which the Romans had encounteredin Gaul. But, more practically, it provided a refuge for Caesar¶senemies



2. What were the main aims of the Northern Frontier?

To have a barrier between the barbarians and the Romans

3. Why did the Romans abandon Hadrian¶s Wall?

Hadrian¶s fortification served it¶s purpose for 250 years. But itssuccess depended on the constant manning of garrisons with loyaland well- disciplined men. However, in the 4th century the forces wereno longer available. Roman generals fighting for the imperial thronedrained away troops. Others were ordered away to fight Goths,Vandals and huns battering on borders much nearer to Rome. In 407,the last effective roman forces left Britain for the Continent. So no

final, glorious battle decided the fate of the wall. It was simplyabandoned to the wind, rain, wild flowers and the barbarian

4. Which was the most important Viking settlement in

Ireland?

In 836, the Vikings began to build fortified bases, called longphortsby the Irish, in which they spent the winter so as to be able to makean early start to raiding when the spring arrived. Most of thesepositions were occupied only briefly, but a few became permanentsettlements, which in the tenth century developed into Ireland¶s firsttrue towns. The most successful of these was Dublin, founded in 841,which probably owed its early growth to Viking slave-trading.

5. What were the most relevant features of the

Romanisation?

The Romans established a system of law and order which gave theisland it¶s first taste of national unity, and opened up communicationsso that trade could flourish. Under Rome, Britain was to enjoy threecenturies of unprecedented peace and prosperity.

- If a province was to be integrated into the empire, the willingcooperation of it¶s people had to be guaranteed through aprocess of Romanisation.



- -In the countryside, the roman need for food led toarrangements with tribes both inside and outside the provincefor supply of grain.

- -They found a collection of roads and paths, most connectinglocal fields and hamlets, but also some longer-distance trade

routes. In building their network of roads, the Romans mostlyignored these previous paths, partly because the roman townsand forts were built on new sites away from the Celticsettlements.

- The minor roads, called, µeconomic roads¶ were also built by theroman army to link economic centres. Every roman road inBritain was linked to London. (all roads leads to Rome).

6. Describe the meaning of the phrase: ³Bread and

circuses´.

Generations of Roman emperors believed that the best way topreserve the loyalty of their far-flung subjects was to provide themwith µpanem et circenses¶, bread and circuses. Even in Britain, one of the most remote territories of the empire was a constant successionof popular entertainments.

Most Roman cities had amphitheatres outside the walls. They wereused for plays and pantomimes. In the arenas inside the cities,sporting events and real tragedies were played out. Men and animals

were torn or hacked to death in gladiatorial clashes which drewcheering, bloodthirsty crowds. Many pots made in Roman Britainshow gladiators fighting, and depict tales of their feats.

7. What were the origins of the great migrations and

Invasions?

The collapse of the Roman province of Brittania created a fragilestructure that drew Germanic migrants from across the channel and

propelled native people around the British Isles. These waves of land -hungry warriors come to Britain first as raiders and then as settlers.This upheaval affected all the British territories but its consequenceswere felt most strongly in southern and eastern Britain, were Romanculture had been most entrenched. This period of mass migrationsacross the North and Irish seas initiated the creation of a new politicalorder, social unrest and warfare.



This period of conflict provides the historical context for the heroicefforts of (the probably largely legendary) King Arthur to resist theAnglo-Saxon expansion into western Britain.

8. Why was religion so important in the invasion period?

Because the Romans were trying to spread out Christianity over thewhole empire, and by the end of Roman Britain, Christianity had asignificant number of believers in Britain, while the Saxons remainedpagan until the seventh century.

9. When was the zenith of the Viking¶s assimilation in

Britain?

The Vikings invasions of Britain reached their peak in 870-1. Then agreat trial of strength took place- the ³year of battles´, as the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle called it. In the thick of the fighting, Ethelred of Wessex died, and was succeeded by Alfred. The Vikings inspired theirenemies to unite against them.

The Danelaw, where they settled and imposed their legal customs,survived even after the norman conquest. And today, place namesending in by (a village) and Thorpe (a hamlet) are a legacy of the

Danish settlers.By the mid¶ 870¶s, the Vikings had shown signs of settlingpermanently in the ravaged lands of Britain.

10. Why is the Anglo-Saxons chronicle so important?

Because a new era was opened in British History. These new-comerscreated the pattern of villages that was to endure to modern times.

11. Outline the situation of Britain at the beginning of

the Romans period.

Although the Romans rated military glory highly, conquest was not anend in itself. In a few cases, existing British leaders were sufficientlyhighly regarded to be left in charge of their territories after the



Roman conquest, temporarily, at least. This brought a degree of political rules and wealth among these tribes, which must have beenacquired in part through contact with the Roman Empire

12. Explain the function of the roman walls and roads in

Britannia.

Walls = They were used as protective barriers, each Roman town wassurrounded of Walls.

Roads: The Romans found a collection of roads and paths, mostconnecting local fields and hamlets, but also some longer distancetrade routes. However, the Roman administration needed a betternetwork of roads to connect its new towns and army posts and to

speed the flow of both trade goods and troops. In building theirnetwork of roads, the Romans mostly ignored the previous paths,partly because the Roman towns and forts were built on new sitesaway from the Celtic settlements.

13. Describe the main features of the Romanisation of

the British Isles.

The Romans established a system of law and order which gave the

island its first taste of national unity.Under Rome, Britain was to enjoy 3 centuries of unprecedented peaceand prosperity.

Roman civilisation was based on racial toleration and it was alsofirmly based on a society of different classes. There were Romancitizens and slaves.

In the countryside, the Roman need for food led to arrangementswith tribes both inside and outside the province for the supply of

grain.

Trade flourished under the protection of the Roman legions, not onlywithin the island, but between Britain and the rest of Europe.

The British benefited from a range of economic and socialopportunities offered by Roman occupation.



Introduced to Britain in the 3rd century, Christianity flourished underthe Romans and inspired its own art, the finest examples of whichwere found in the Roman villa at Lullingstone in Kent.

14. Discuss the meaning of the great migrations in

Britain.

The collapse of the Roman province of Britannia created a fragilestructure that drew Germanic migrants from across the channel andpropelled native people around the British Isles. This period of massmigrations across the North and Irish seas initiated the creation of anew political order, social unrest and warfare.

This period of conflict provides the historical context for the heroic

efforts of (the probably largely legendary) King Arthur to resist theAnglo-Saxon expansion into western Britain.

This long period of conflicts and ethnic tensions redefined a newBritain. It lasted from 600 to 1066. There was new politicallandscape, consisting of little kingdoms, unlike the roman provincialstructure. Celtic and Anglo-Saxon social organisation was not sodifferent, but there were great religious and linguistic differences

15. Compare the impact of the Roman Conquest and thegreat invasions of Britain.

Two striking differences between the scenes in the Roman and Anglo-Saxon reconstructions are that:

a) The town was much more densely occupied in Roman times and

b) The building styles are very different.

UNIT 3 The unification of England

1. Explain the main features of the process of the

Unification of England.



The ancient kingdom of the West Saxons had been transformed into akingdom of Anglo-Saxons by King Alfred the Great, and during the10th century, his successors extended their rule over the Danes andthe Northumbrians.

Ireland, too, seemed to be moving towards greater political unityunder the High king Brian Boru.

There was a process of political development throughout the ninthand 10th centuries, from the kingdom of the West Saxons to thekingdom of the English.

The Vikings conquered the kingdoms of East Anglia, Northumbria andMercia.

The kingdom of the West Saxons had spread eastwards in the central

decades of the 9th

century to control Kent, Sussex, Surrey and Essex.Alfred¶s ³kingdom of the Anglo-Saxons´ passed to his son, Edward theelder (899-924), who spread West Saxon control over the Danes of eastern England and the Mercians. The frontier had been taken up tothe river Humber.

In 939,on Athelstan¶s death, the Dublin Norse re-established theirlinks with York but it was not until the reign of king Edgar (975) thatthe unified kingdom of England was completed. After his death, theEnglish were facing a constant external threat and, in the early 11th

century, the Danish invaded.

One represented the new mobility of the Anglo-Danish power and theolder defended the political interests north of the river Thames

2. Describe the main features of the Norman conquest.

The Norman conquest of 1066 was an outer ripple of this movement.The battle of Hastings was a traditional watershed in English history,

the invading Normans, led by their Duke, William the bastard (laterWilliam the Conqueror), vanquished the Anglo-Saxons under HaroldGodwineson, who died with an arrow in his eye. William won histhrone by force and he defended it by force. Any opposition to hisrule was brutally crushed.



Not all England had accepted him as king. His dominion was primarilyin the south, covering all the old kingdoms of Wessex, Kent, Sussexand Essex, and stretching some way into Mercia.

William knew that final victory was a long way off. London still held

out. He must have known that if resistance continued,, hiscommunications with Normandy were vulnerable and his sources of supply uncertain. On Christmas day 1066 he was crowned king of England. In 1068 the Conqueror faced a real challenge, it came fromthe north. In January, a Norman army was massacred in Durham, afew weeks later, the Normans fled from York, leaving it to beoccupied by the rebels. This was the most serious defeat suffered bythe Normans in England.

Yet such was the English leaders¶ indecision that, at the news of theconqueror¶s approach, the rebellion collapsed.

3. What is the Domesday Book?

It¶s the record of the great national survey ordered by William I in1085, to discover the true wealth and probable future wealth of England. It was one of the first censuses. Royal officials journeyedthroughout the land, recording details of the property owned byeveryone from the king downwards. The survey was carried out

quickly but with such thoroughness that, according to a chronicler, ³not even one ox, or one cow or pig escaped notice.´ When theinformation had been gathered, returns were submitted for individual

³hundreds´, which were the subdivisions of counties.

4. What were the main purposes of the Magna Carta?

It was a document that King John of England was forced into singing.Most of its clauses recounted their specific complaints against the

lawless behaviour of King John.The Magna Carta became the basis for English citizens µrights. ( itdemonstrated that the power of the king could be limited by a writtengrant.)

The main aim of the Magna Carta was to curb the king and make himgovern by the old English laws that had prevailed before the Normans



came. The Magna Carta was a collection of 37 English laws, somecopied and some recollected some old and some new.

Copies of the Magna Carta were distributed to sheriffs and otherimportant people throughout England.

The Magna Carta is considered to be the founding document of English liberties and hence American liberties. The influence of MagnaCarta can be seen in the United States Constitution and the Bill of Rights.

Copies of the Magna Carta were distributed to bishops, sheriffs andother important people throughout England.

Magna Carta insisted that the king could not be above the law andthat in the future, he must govern his subjects according to its terms

and not according to his own whim.The Magna Carta mixed specific complaints with some principles of law, which in future ages were to be regarded as the backbone of English Liberties. All these clauses were largely the work of StephenLangton. The most important thing about this charter was not what itsaid, but the fact that it was granted at all.

Summary of Magna Carta:

1 The English Church shall be free, and shall have its rights

undiminished, and its liberties unimpaired.TO ALL FREE MEN OF OUR KINGDOM we have also granted, for usand for our heirs forever, all the liberties written out below, to haveand to keep for them and their heirs, of us and our heirs:

2. If any earl, baron, or other person that holds lands directly of theCrown, for military service, shall die, and at his death his heir shall beof full age and owe a ³relief´ . That is to say the heir of heirs of anearl shall pay 100 for the entire earl¶s barony, the heir of heirs of aknight 100s. At the most for the entire knight¶s ³fee´ and any man

that owes less shall pay less, in accordance with the ancient usage of ³fees´.

3 But if the heir of such a person is under age and a ward, when hecomes of age he shall have his inheritance without ³relief´ or fine.

4 The guardian of the land of an heir who is under age shall take fromit only reasonable revenues, customary dues, and feudal services. He



shall do this without destruction or damage to men or property. If wehave given or sold to anyone the guardianship of such land, and hecauses destruction or damage, he shall lose the guardian ship of it,and it shall be handed over to two worthy and prudent men of thesame ³fee´, who shall be similarly answerable to us.

5 For so long as a guardian has guardianship of such land, he shallmaintain the houses, parks, fish preserves, ponds, mills, andeverything else pertaining to it, from the revenues of the land itself.

6. Heirs may be given in marriage, but not to someone of lower socialstanding. Before a marriage takes place, it shall be µmade known tothe heir¶s next-of-kin.

7 At her husband¶s death, a widow may have her marriage portionand inheritance at once and without trouble. She may remain in her

husband¶s house for 40 d after his death, and within this period herdower shall be assigned to her.

8 No widow shall be compelled to marry, so long as she wishes toremain without a husband. But she must give security that she willnot marry without royal consent.

9 Neither we or our officials will seize any land or rent in payment of a debt. If, for lack of means, the debtor is unable to discharge hisdebt, his sureties shall be answerable for it. If they so desire, they

may have the debtor¶s lands and rents until they have receivedsatisfaction for the debt that they paid for him, unless the debtor canshow that he has settled his obligations to them.

10 If anyone who has borrowed a sum of money from Jews diesbefore the debt has been repaid, his heir shall pay no interest on thedebt for so long as he remains under age, irrespective of whom heholds his lands.

11 If a man dies owing money to Jews, his wife may have her dowerand pay nothing towards the debt from it.

12 No ³scutage´ or ³aid´ may be levied in our kingdom without itsgeneral consent, unless it is for the ransom of our person, to makeour eldest son a knight, and (once) to marry our eldest daughter. Forthese purposes only a reasonable ³aid´ may be levied. ³Aids´ fromthe city of London are to be treated similarly.



13 The city of London shall enjoy all its ancient liberties and freecustoms, both by land and by water.

14 To those who hold lands directly of us we will cause a generalsummons to be issued, through the sheriffs and other officials, to

come together on a fixed day (of which at least 40 d notice shall begiven) and at a fixed place.

15 In future we will allow no one to levy an ³aid´ from his free men,except to ransom his person, to make his eldest son a knight, and(once) to marry his eldest daughter. For these purposes only areasonable ³aid´ may be levied

16 No man shall be forced to perform more service for a knight¶s ³fee´, or other free holding of land, than is due from it.

17 Ordinary lawsuits shall not follow the royal court around, but shallbe held in a fixed place.

18 Certain cases were more appropriately (and conveniently) heard inlocal courts, provided for in this chapter. The details included in thischapter were intended to assure a just hearing.

19 If any assizes cannot be taken on the day of the county court, asmany knights and freeholders shall afterwards remain behind, of those who have attended the court, as will suffice for theadministration of justice, having regard to the volume of business to

be done.

-Efforts would be made to assure a fair hearing, even when thedocket was overloaded

20 For a trivial offence, a free man shall be fined only in proportion tothe degree of his offence, and for a serious offence correspondingly,but not so heavily as to deprive him of his livelihood. In the sameway, a merchant shall be spared his merchandise, and a husbandmanthe implements of his husbandry, if they fall upon the mercy of a

royal court. None of these fines shall be imposed except by theassessment on oath of reputable men of the neighbourhood.

21 Earls and barons shall be fined only by their equals, and inproportion to the gravity of their offence.



20,21 ±Punishment for violations of the law was to be in proportion tothe seriousness of the offense, thus establishing a standard of fairness

22 A fine imposed upon the lay property of a clerk in holy orders shall

be assessed upon the same principles, without reference to the valueof his ecclesiastical benefice.

23 No town or person shall be forced to build bridges over riversexcept those with an ancient obligation to do so.

24 No sheriff, constable, coroners, or other royal officials are to holdlawsuits that should be held by the royal justices.

-The goal of this provision was to provide a uniform system of justice,one not subject to local interpretation.

25 Every county, hundred, wapentake, and tithing shall remain at itsancient rent, without increase, except the royal demesne manors.

26 If no debt is due to the Crown, all the movable goods shall beregarded as the property of the dead man, except the reasonableshares of his wife and children.

27 If a free man dies intestate, his movable goods are to bedistributed by his next-of-kin and friends, under the supervision of the Church. The rights of his debtors are to be preserved.

28 No constable or other royal official shall take corn or othermovable goods from any man without immediate payment, unless theseller voluntarily offers postponement of this.

29 A knight taken or sent on military service shall be excused fromcastle-guard for the period of this service.

30 No sheriff, royal official or other person shall take horses or cartsfor transport from any free man, without his consent.

31 Neither we nor any royal official will take wood for our castle, orfor any other purpose, without the consent of the owner.

32 We will not keep the lands of people convicted of felony in ourhand for longer than a year and a day, after which they shall bereturned to the lords of the ³fees´ concerned.

33 All fish weirs shall be removed from the Thames, the Medway, andthroughout the whole of England, except on the sea coast



the king to raise revenue. However, they had the effect of denying justice to those who could not afford them.-

41 All merchants may enter or leave England unharmed and withoutfear, and may stay or travel within it, by land or water, for purposes

of trade, free from all illegal exactions, in accordance with ancientand lawful customs.

42 In future it shall be lawful for any man to leave and return to ourkingdom unharmed and without fear, preserving his allegiance to us,except in time of war, for some short period, for the common benefitof the realm.

43 If a man holds lands of any ³escheat´, such as the honour of Wallingford, Nottingham, Boulogne, Lancaster, or of other ³escheats´ in our hand that are baronies, at his death his heir shall give us only

the ³relief´ and service that we would have made to the baron, hadthe barony been in the baron¶s hand. We will hold the ³es cheat´ inthe same manner as the baron held it.

44 People who live outside the forest need not in future appearbefore the royal justices of the forest in answer to generalsummonses, unless they are actually involved in proceedings or aresureties for someone who has been seized for a forest offence

45 We will appoint as justices, constables, sheriffs, or other officials,

only men that know the law of the realm and are minded to keep itwell.

-This sets a standard for those appointed to enforce and administerthe law- they must ³know the law´ and be prepared to ³keep it well´

46 All barons who have founded abbeys, and have charters of EnglishKings or ancient tenure as evidence of this, may have guardianship of them when there is no abbot, as in their due.

47 All forests that have been created in our reign shall at once be

disafforested. Riverbanks that have been enclosed in our reign shallbe treated similarly.

49 We will at once return all hostages and charters delivered up to usby Englishmen as security for peace or for loyal service.

50 We will remove completely from their offices the kinsmen of Gerard de Athée, and in future they shall hold no offices in England.



The people in question are Engelard de Cigogné, Peter, Guy... and hisbrothers, Philip Marc and his brothers, with Geoffrey his nephew, andall their followers.

51 As soon as peace is restored, we will remove from the kingdom all

the foreign knights, bowmen, their attendants, and the mercenariesthat have come to it, to its harm, with horses and arms.

52 To any man whom we have deprived or dispossessed of lands,castles, liberties or rights, without the lawful judgement of his equalswe will at once restore these.

53 We shall have similar respite in rendering justice in connexion withforests that are to be disafforested, or to remain forests, when thesewere first a-orested by our father Henry or our brother Richard; withthe guardianship of lands in another person¶s ³fee´, when we have

hitherto had this by virtue of a ³fee´ held of us for knight¶s service bya third party; and with abbeys founded in another person¶s ³fee´, inwhich the lord of the ³fee´ claims to own a right.

54 No one shall be arrested or imprisoned on the appeal of a womanfor the death of any person except her husband.

55 All fines that have been given to us unjustly and against the law of the land, and all fines that we have exacted unjustly, shall be entirelyremitted or the matter decided by a majority judgement of the 25

barons referred to below in the clause for securing the peace (61)together with Stephen, archbishop of Canterbury, if he can bepresent, and such others as he wishes to bring with him.

-Picking up on the theme of fairness, the chapter called for therepayment of all fines that were imposed unjustly, and it establishedthe procedure by which challenges against unjust fines were to behandled. Worth nothing is the attempt to avoid a ³conflict of interest´: a baron was expected to step aside and allow a substituteto decide a case similar to one in which he was himself involved

56 English law shall apply to holdings of land in England, Welsh law tothose in Wales, and the law of the Marches to those in the marches.The Welsh shall treat us and ours in the same way.

58 We will at once return the son of Llywelyn, all Welsh hostages,and the charters delivered to us as security foe the peace.



59 With regard to the return of the sisters and hostages of Alexander,king of Scotland, his liberties and his rights, we will treat him in thesame way as our other barons of England, unless it appears from thecharters that we hold from his father William, formerly king of Scotland, that he could be treated otherwise.

60 All these customs and liberties that we have granted shall beobserved in our kingdom in so far as concerns our own relations withour subjects. Let al men of our kingdom, whether clergy or laymen,observe them similarly in their relations with their own men.

-Another of Coke¶s favourites, this chapter enlarged the scope of theMagna Carta, implying that the right and liberties would be extendedto all men and by all men within the kingdom

61 SINCE WE HAVE GRANTED ALL THESE THINGS for God, for the

better ordering of our kingdom, and to allay the discord that hasarisen between us and our barons, and since we desire that they shallbe enjoyed in their entirety, with lasting strength, we give and grantto the barons the following security.

63 ±Both we and the barons have sworn that all this shall beobserved in good faith and without deceit; Witness theabovementioned people and many others

5. Why is the summoning of the First English Parliament a

turning point in British History?

Because it introduced a feudal system, and, ove r the centuries, theEnglish Parliament progressively limited the power of the Englishmonarchy which arguably culminated in the English civil war and thetrial and execution of Charles I in 1649

6. How did Scotland win its independence in 1328?

William Wallace, a mere boy in his twenties in the town of Paisley,was driven by the conviction that he was Scottish, Edward wasEnglish, and Scotland must be free of the king called the hammer of the Scots. Wallace raised an enthusiastic army and he tramped hismen into the north and retook the castles that Edward had captured.The Scots were on the march. Their great victory was in September



1297 at Stirling Bridge. This battle demonstrated the militarybrilliance of Wallace. The English survivors fled and Walla ce becamethe master of Scotland. In 1305 Wallace was betrayed and carried toLondon to be charged with treason. He rejected the charge, since hehad never given his loyalty to an English king. He was hanged, drawn

and quartered all the same.

7. What were main effects of the continual warfare

between the Houses of Lancaster and York?

Each family believed that it had a legitimate claim to the throne.

The House of York (1461-1485), had a stronger claim to the thronethe House of Lancaster, although both were branches of the house

Plantagenet. The Lancastrians met defeat in their turn, and whenEdward seated himself upon the throne in Westminster, there werefew who regretted the passing of the red rose of Lancaster. Edwardwas proclaimed the first Yorkist king. The old king, Henry VIremained at large, a wandering fugitive with a small band of attendants.

8. How can the Medieval British Economy be described?

The general belief in medieval times was the existence of a soleChurch, the Roman Catholic Church with its sole truth, the catholiccreed.

Another feature of the middle ages is immobility. The medievalpopulation were highly immobile with regard to both vertical (social)and horizontal (spatial) mobility.

Medieval society was mainly agricultural and it had to overcomeserious difficulties with obtaining a continuous supply of food and rawmaterials. The land-cultivating class made up, by far, the largest

segment of the population.

Vertical immobility was the result of a rigidly hierarchies society.

9. Why was the medieval church so important in the British

Isles?



Three successive Archbishops of Canterbury died in the space of 12months. London¶s cemeteries were too small to take the hundreds of dead who arrived every day.

Priests could not be found to say Mass in poor parishes. The

destruction of one third of England¶s population of 3 million, and thelaying waste of over 1000 villages, was a disaster unparalleled inmodern times. One chronicler explained that µno sin of man could beso awful as to deserve such a punishment of God.

It is difficult to say to what extent the Black Death affected the Irishpopulation. The foregoing evidence shows that the plague penetratedall regions of the country between 1348 and 1350, through somelocalities undoubtedly escaped. In 1351 this outbreak of the plaguehad run its course.

11. Arguments for and against the signing of the Magna

Carta.

Positive ones: Most of its clauses recounted their specific complaintsagainst the lawless behaviour of King John. The main aim of theMagna Carta was to curb the king and make him govern by the oldEnglish laws that had prevailed before the Normans came. The MagnaCarta is considered to be the founding document of English liberties

and hence American liberties.Magna Carta insisted that the king could not be above the law andthat in the future, he must govern his subjects according to its termsand not according to his own whim.

12. Present your ideas and impressions about the

conflict between Church and State.

Those at the head of the English church were often wealthy,

aristocratic and cosmopolitan ecclesiastics. With such conspicuouswealth among clergy, the potential for conflict between church andstate grew, and came to a head with the crisis involving ArchbishopThomas Becket. Henry II expected to have a complaint church afterproposing the constitutions of Clarendon (1164). He sought to limitpapal power in England. Becket was determined to sustain thechurch. The outcome of the row in 1164 was the murder of Thomas



land-cultivating class made up, by far, the largest segment of thepopulation.

The king or the emperor and the Pope stood at the apex of medievalsociety. All three claimed to derive their authority from heaven.

Under these we find the aristocracy and the upper church hierarchy.These were usually land-owning classes with great prerogatives. Bothof them were closed classes. The lesser nobility (knights and feudallords) and the regular clergy constituted the next step in the pyramid.Knights were men of free birth following a non-servile service to anaristocrat.

UNIT 4: The Tudor age

1. Why was the Tudor dynasty so important in England?

The arrival of the Tudors heralded a new age. With Henry VII cameincreasing peace, power and enlightenment. This was the age of thegreat voyages of exploration. Mercator would complete his first mapof the world, and on the high seas, England and Spain would becomethe great rivals for supremacy.

In 1485, when the Tudor dynasty came to power, England was

divided and bankrupt after thirty years of civil war. The countrycounted for little on the continent, whether in diplomacy, commerceor war. In just over a century, the brilliant Tudors steered the countryin a new direction to revitalise their kingdom and make it the envy of the world.

The Tudor name brought with it an aura of daring and excitement,although the nobility had not supported its cause

2. Who supported Mary¶s claim to the throne of England?

The Scots.

3. What was the role of Parliament in English Politics?



In Tudor times most important decisions concerning governmentwere made by the king or queen and a small group of advisers calledthe Privy Council. However, before these decisions became law, theyhad to be passed by Parliament.

Parliament was the House of Lords and the House of Commons. The

House of Lords was made up of about sixty Bishops, Dukes, Earls andBarons. It was unusual for members of the House of Lords to criticisethe king's policies. If they did so, they were in danger of beingstripped of their titles.

Members of the House of Commons were more independent as theywere sometimes elected by the people who lived in the area theyrepresented. However, very few people had the vote and in manycases the largest landowner in the area decided who went toParliament.

4. Why did Henry VIII break with the Catholic Church?

Because in order to divorce from his wife, he had to break away fromthe Catholic church, since the pope didn¶t agree with divorce

5. What was the Reformation?

It was a religious movement which led to the birth of the protestant

faith. It was started by a catholic monk who did not believe that youcould just buy your way into heaven. In 1517, he protested againstthe catholic practice of granting indulgences. An indulgence was apardon instead of punishment for a sin. To gain an indulgence, aperson had to perform a good deed. This was often giving money tothe church, so it looked as if the church was selling pardons. Luther(this monk) protested that this was wrong. He believed that mancould only be saved by the grace of god.

The new Christians called themselves ³Protestants´ because they

were protesting against the Roman ³Catholic´ (meaning ³universal´)Church, its practices, its teachings and its customs. Their demand forreform led to this period of history being called the Reformation.

Church services changed back to Latin. While Mary¶s strong Catholicfaith gave her a great sense of purpose,, it also made her obstinateand narrow minded.



The reformation was not an immediate success. It took about acentury to work through society.

Outlying areas of the British Isles, including much of Ireland andsmall communities, never experienced the reformation.

In 1536, the parliament passed the Act of Suppression, whichbecame known as the

³Dissolution of the Monasteries´, and Henry ordered the closing downof the wealthy Roman catholic Abbeys, monasteries and conventsacross Engl, Wales and Ireland.

In 1539 the 2nd act of Suppression was passed to sanction thetransfer of further monastic possessions to the state. Henry VIII tookownership of all the buildings, land, money, and everything else.

Some of the small monasteries stayed open because they paid somemoney to the king.

Some of the monastic buildings and lands were sold off after thedissolution. Many of the greatest monasteries fell into ruin, and theirstone-work was plundered by local people in search of buildingmaterials.

Wales also suffered the religious upheaval of the reformation. At first,the reformation merely substituted one barely intelligible language,Latin, with another, English.

6. How did the British Reformation influence national and

international politics?

In 1534, Henry responded to the Pope with the act of supremacy,thereby putting himself in charge of all the churches and monasteriesin England. Henry needed to reduce the power of the church inEngland, as well as find money to fund his fruitless and expensivewars against France and Scotland.

In 1536, the parliament passed the act of suppression, which becameknown as the ³Dissolution of the monasteries´, and Henry ordered theclosing down of the wealthy Roman Catholic Abbeys, monasteries andconvents across England, Wales and Ireland.

In 1539, the 2nd act of suppression was passed to sanction thetransfer of further monastic possessions to the state. Henry VII took



ownership of all the buildings, land, money and everything else.Some of the small monasteries stayed open because they payedsome money to the king.

Some of the monastic buildings and lands were sold off after t he

dissolution. Many of the greatest monasteries fell into ruin, and theirstonework was plundered by local people in search of buildingmaterials.

7. Which were the main repercussions of the Counter-

reformation in Britain?

The reformation started ideologically by Martin Luther. England gotinvolved because Henry VIII wanted independence from the Vatican

so he could get divorced and remarried.The Counter Reformation is the reaction of the Vatican and theCatholics against the protestant movement.

It was there for basically a reactionary movement- trying tocounteract the Reformation

There were groups who supported these two movements, whereverthey were. After all this, Germany, Eng. And Switzerland becameindependent countries.

In France, Spain.. the ones who won the day were the Catholics.

Much could not be restored,, for e.g, the monastic houses had largelybeen demolished or converted to other uses, and their communitiesscattered. Mary was able to re-establish a Benedictine monastery atWestminster and small religious houses elsewhere. In the parishes,,churchwardens¶ accounts graphically show how church furnishingswere restored, altars re-erected, statuary replaced, bells re-hung andthe old service books returned.

A married priest, John Rogers, was the first to pay with his life for hisloyalty to the protestant faith. He was burnt at Smithfield in London.The next was John Hooper, Bishop of Gloucester and Worcester. Hewas burnt at outside Gloucester Cathedral.

Early in the winter of 1558, Mary Tudor finally despaired of everbearing a child and reluctantly recognised her sister, Elisabeth, asheir to the throne of Engl. A few days later, on the 17th of 11, Mary



was dead and Elisabeth proclaimed queen. It was the end of theCounter ±Reformation in Britain.

8. What was the significance of µthe Act of union of 1536¶?

Between 1536 and 1543, the English parliament passed a series of laws that became known as the Acts of Union during the reign of Henry VIII. It was not a question of uniting two countries together asWales had already been effectively incorporated into England sincethe days of the Statute of Rhuddlan in 1284, fact which the preambleto the act of 1536 makes clear, stating (on behalf of the king) thatWales ³is and ever has been incorporated, united and annexed to andwith his Realm of England´, somewhat of an exaggeration, but inessence the simple truth

9. What were the main reasons for British expansion

overseas at the end of the sixteenth century?

Had just been discovered at the end of the 15th century, and afterthat, the major powers (Spain, Portugal.. got into colonising)

Eng. And France tried to aswell. Eng. Colonised a good chunk of northA.

10. How did Britain become a world power in this

period?

The basis of the wealth was mostly exploiting the colonies, mostlytrading with the A. colonies

11. Describe the main achievements of the Tudor

monarchs.

The 5 Tudor monarchs were rulers of extraordinary ability, and muchalso to their continuing good luck. Their abilities showed themselvesin their astute choice of servants and policies; their luck in the factthat they lived to an advanced age and left obvious heirs to succeedthem.



Propaganda was the key to Henry¶s success. In order to be strong,the Tudors had to appear strong. Magnificent displays of wealth andpower were more than a way of life.

So long as Englishmen thought that their king could defeat any

rebellion, they were unlikely to join one.Tudor government and court

The Tudor name brought with it an aura of daring and excitement,although the nobility had not supported its cause. Henrystrengthened his claim on the throne by marring Elisabeth of York,the eldest daughter of Edward IV, thereby uniting the houses of Yorkand Lancaster under the new dynasty.

Henry VII and later his son Henry VIII concentrated the residences

they governed from in the south-east and were unwilling to traveltheir kingdom as much as their predecessors had done.

Henry VII re-established the equilibrium of the English monarchy andits finances.

Henry VIII is probably the best known king of Eng. And may even bethe most notorious. Certainly his reign saw some of the mostdevelopments in Eng since the time of Edward I.

Henry was the first to inherit a comparatively U.K.

He obeyed his father¶s that he marry his elder brother¶s widow,Katherine of Aragon, in order to continue the alliance with Spain.

In 1516, Thomas Moore¶s utopia was published. It was part of theEuropean debate. However, it contained plenty of criticism of theHenry VIII¶s government he knew.

Henry wanted to be the centre of the European stage. When the HolyRoman Emperor, Maximilian I, died in 1519, Henry stood as acandidate to succeed him, having earlier been encouraged by

Maximilian himself, who regarded him as a good prospect,

When Pope Leo X died in 1521, Henry strove to have an Engl. Pope,nominating Thomas Wolsey, but without success. This period was oneof change in Eur.

Henry¶s second wife was Anne Boleyn, who gave birth to a girl, thefuture Elisabeth I. In 1536, she was arrested, tried and found guilty



of treason and executed. Soon after that, Henry married JaneSeymour, who gave birth to the future Edward VI.

Elisabeth went on to reign for nearly 45 y, longer than any king sinceEdward III. She personified her country at the summit of its fame.

An important topic to be considered during Elizabeth¶s reign was therevolution in Ireland.

There were a number of revolts against English monarchy duringElizabeth¶s reign.

There had been other rebellions during her reign, such as that of Shane O¶Neil in Ulster during the 1560¶s the Fitzmaurice rising of 1569-1573 and the desmond rebellion of 1579-1583.

The Parliament: The creation of Parliament is one of the greatest gifts

that Britain has given to the world. It was under Henry III that, forthe first time, on a March morning in 1265, a historic assemblygathered together in the dim light of Westminster Hall.

At the first Engl. Parliament, Henry swore to mend his ways andreform his government. This achievement was the work of one man,Simon de Montfort.

The English parliament consisted of 2 chambers, the House of Lords,who were the nobility, and the House of Commons, elected

representatives from the different shires and the main towns (theparliamentary borough).

Until the protestant reformation, the different Houses of Lordsincluded the abbots of the leading monasteries. In Engl, bishopscontinued to sit in the Lords after the reformation, but in Scotlandthey were excluded after 1638.

At first, the strong Tudor monarchs, successors to York andLancaster, controlled generally docile Parliaments.

The 1601 Parliament is a good example of a Parliament called for onepurpose which diverted its attention to others, including attacks onmonopolies and a codification of the Poor Law, which remained on thestatute book until 1834.



12. Present the situation of England at the end of the

16th

century

With the birth of his son, Arthur, in 1486, Henry VII wanted to makea strong alliance with the rulers of Aragon and Castile, Ferdinand and

Isabella, whose court was one of the richest in Eur. Their daughter,Catherine, was born just before Arthur. They were eventually marriedin 1499. The link with Spain became even more important followingColumbusus¶s discovery of a route to the Indies (1492)

The end of the century saw Engl. At the height of her power. Therewere some great physicists and speculative thinkers who emerged inElizabethan¶s y, including sr. Francis Bacon, who was one of the mostinfluential.

With the end of the middle Ages, Henry¶s reign is seen as the start of

Eng. Glory and the birth of a modern Engl.

13. Compare the effects the Reformation had on

England and Europe.

Reformation is the religious revolution that took place in WesternEurope in the 16th century. It arose from objections to doctrines andpractices in the medieval church, loss of papal authority andcredibility as well as other societal, political and economical issues of the time. This revolution had a major impact on Europe and it gaveway to short term and long-term consequences, which still can beseen today.There were many causes of Reformation, some go as far back as thefourteenth century. One of the main ones was that the papalauthority and credibility were damaged. This was done through,Avignon papacy; - a time where the headquarters of the Holy Seehad to be moved from Rome to Avignon, it brought uncertainty to thepeople, as they did not trust the Pope, and believed the Popefavoured the French. Following this, the Great Western Schism alsocontributed to the loss of papal authority as it split Christian Europeinto hostile camps, because three different men were claiming to be

the true Pope, each having some support from different kings andprinces of Europe. Finally, the corruption of the Renaissance papacy,such as that of Alexander VI (who did not keep the celibacy vow)resulted in loss of papal credibility.As the Holy See was not as powerful anymore, it was suffering fromattacks on the papacy. Many felt that the Pope and his Bishops haddeveloped into an abusive feudal monarchy. They were not happythat the Church was concentrating on making profits and not on the



spiritual well being of people. Early reformation movements such asthe Lollards and the Hussites that were founded by John Wycliffe andJohn Huss respectively were suppressed for their attacks on thepapacy.

People also resented the Church, because of practices such theindulgences ± when individuals paid to church for forgiveness of theirsins. The society was aware that the higher clergy was interested inpolitical power, material possessions, and privileged position in...

14. What were the major forms of English resistance to

Spanish power?

Throughout her reign (Elisabeth), England had been fighting anunofficial conflict with Spain.

Philip II of Spain was enfuriated by England¶s piracy of Spanish shipsfrom the new world. Spain and Portugal dominated the seas, and in1580 Philip became king of Portugal s well as Spain, thus increasinghis maritime and merchant strength.

Philip¶s relationship with England continued to sour and theculmination of all this was one of the most famous confrontations of all time, when the Spanish sent their Armada against England in July1588. This Armada was doomed by the weather even more than bythe superiority of English seamanship and the better design of the

English ships, which allowed them to hug the water and dart throughthe waves. Conflict with Spain dragged on for another 15 y.

15. Explain the situation of England at the beginning

and at the end of the Tudor Age.

The arrival of the Tudors heralded a new age. With Henry VII cameincreasing peace, power and enlightenment. This was the age of thegreat voyages of exploration.

In 1485, when Tudor dynasty came to power, Eng. Was divided andbankrupt after 30 y of civil war-

Life in Tudor England was governed by a rigid social system, whichwas held to follow ³God¶s divine laws´.



Pain for the poor and benefits for gentry were to be significantcharacteristics of the next century of English history. In TudorEngland a third of the population lived in poverty. Their sufferingalways increased after bad harvests.

In the 16

th

century, unemployment was a major cause of poverty. Ithas been estimated that in 1570 about 10% of the population werestill wandering around the country looking for work.

UNIT 5, CIVIL WAR

1. Explain the Stuarts¶ belief in their µDivine Right¶ to

rule?

The first Stuart, James I, boasted that he was an old and experiencedking. However, he and his son, Charles I, both found that theirsubjects meant to instruct them. These kings believed in their ³DivineRight´ to rule as they chose. Their subjects, however, had followed adifferent path, as previous monarchs had consulted their people inParliament

2. Why was Charles I in conflict with Parliament?

Charles was arrogant, conceited and a strong believer in the divinerights of kings. He had witnessed the damaged relationship betweenhis father and Parliament, and considered that Parliament wasentirely at fault. He found it difficult to believe that a King could bewrong. His arrogant attitude was eventually to lead to his execution.From 1625 to 1629, Charles argued with Parliament over mostissues, but money and religion were the most common causes of arguments.

3. How did the English civil Wars break out?

The English civil wars were due to different causes but the personalityof Charles I must be counted as one of the major reasons. Fewpeople could have predicted a civil war that started in 1642, wouldhave ended with the public execution of Charles. No king had ever



been executed in England, and the execution of Charles was notgreeted with joy.

The wars were due to both long and short term causes. An importantlong term cause was the fact that the status of the monarchy had

started to decline under the reign of James I. James was a firmbeliever in the ³Divine Right of Kings´. This was the belief that godhad made someone a king and God could not be wrong. Jamesexpected Parliament to do as he wanted; he did not expect it toargue with any of his decisions

4. Who supported the king and the Parliament in the civil

Wars?

King: Aristocracy, the landowners, the Anglican church, Catholics..On the side of the Parliament were the new commercial classes, thenavy, the Puritans; the south, the midlands, and London.

Rich-King Poor- Parliament Similar enough to the Spanish civil wars

5. What did the civil wars and the Interregnum achieve?

The English Interregnum was the period

of parliamentary and military rule by the Lord Protector OliverCromwell under the Commonwealth of England after the English CivilWar. It began with the overthrow, and execution, of Charles I inJanuary 1649,[1] and ended with the restoration of Charles II on May29, 1660.

6. In what ways did µpopular¶ politics and religion come

to prominence during the Stuart Age?

Charles I dissolved his first Parliament in 1626 because they haddemanded limits on his rights to levy customs duties, a second in1629 after protests over taxation, the war with Spain, and theattempts to allow toleration for Catholics. From 1629 until 1640,,Charles ruled without Parliament, a policy that worked as long asCharles did not need large amounts of money, which only Parliamentcould grant him.



The inevitable crisis was caused by Charles0¶s attempts to impose theEnglish liturgy in Scotland. Defeat in the first and second bishop¶ swars, forced Charles to call first the short parliament

7. What was the glorious revolution?

The expression ³Glorious Revolution´ was first used by JohnHampden in 1689, and it is an expression that is still used by theWestminster Parliament. It was also called the Revolution of 1688,and occasionally the Bloodless Revolution. This critical event is betterdescribed as the invasion it undoubtedly was, rather than a

³revolution´.

Parliament placed constitutionally significant legal and practical

limitations on the monarchy establishing the foundation of England¶sconstitutional monarchy.

8. How did the glorious revolution affect the

development of Great Britain?

The new constitution created the expectation that future monarchswould also remain constrained by Parliament. The new balance of power between Parliament and crown made the promises of English

government more credible, and credibility allowed the government toreorganize its finances through a collection of changes called theFinancial Rev.

9. Enumerate the main civil and political rights included

in the Bill of Rights.

It is an act of the Parliament of Eng, whose title is An Act Declaringthe Rights and Liberties of the subjects and settling the succession of

the Crown. It promoted religious toleration and the Triennial Act,1694, which prevented the king from dissolving Parliament at willand placed a legal requirement that general elections had to be heldevery 3 y. It was a second Magna Carta, setting out the personal andpolitical rights of all Englishmen.



10. Why was the 1707 Act of Union of England and

Scotland so relevant?

Because it led to the creation of the U.K of Great Britain. TheParliament of the U.K met for the 1rst time in Oct, 1707.

Suspicion and mistrust between the 2 countries had prevented theunion throughout the 17th century. The Scots feared that they wouldsimply become another region of England, being swallowed up as hadhappened to Wales some 400 y earlier. For England, the fear that theScots may take sides with France and rekindle the ³Auld Alliance´ wasdecisive.

11. Describe the situation of Britain on the Stuarts¶

accession

The accession of James VI of Scotland as James I of Englandunited the countries of England and Scotland under one monarchfor the first time.

James believed in the Divine Right of Kings - that he wasanswerable to God alone and could not be tried by any court. Heforbade any interpretation of church doctrine different to his ownand made Sunday Church-going compulsory. Catholics were notallowed to celebrate Mass and he refused to listen

to Puritan demands for church reform, instead authorising use of the King James Bible that is still in existence today.

James I also introduced English and Irish Protestants intoNorthern Ireland through the Ulster Plantation scheme and triedto keep England at peace with the rest of Europe. Although hewas a clever man, his choice of favourites alienated Parliamentand he was not able to solve the country's financial or politicalproblems. When he died in 1625 the country was badly in debt.

12. Describe the main causes that provoked the

restoration of the Stuart monarchy.

The Restoration Settlement led to Charles Stuart being proclaimedKing Charles II of England, Wales, Scotland and Ireland on May 8 th,1660. The new king landed at Dover on May 26th. For eleven years,there had been no monarchy but the Restoration Settlement broughtback from exile the son of the beheaded Charles I. The arrival of



Charles in Dover was well received by the locals in the port ± andtheir jubilation was shared throughout the country. Many were happythat the old order had been reinstalled as they saw the monarchy asthe normal state of affairs within the country. This may well havebeen a reaction to the years when Oliver Cromwell controlled the

country ± an era of austerity which many saw as µunnatural¶. Therewas a desire to forget about the dislocation of the previous twentyyears. One of the first acts of the new government was to introducean Act of Indemnity and Pardon. This act forgave and pardonedpeople for past actions (though it was eventually to exclude thoseclassed as regicides) and it allowed the new monarch a fresh start.Great things were expected from Charles II.

However, the Restoration Settlement was a complicated affair spread

between 1660 and 1664. The term µRestoration Settlement¶ seems togive an air of structure to the settlement but, in fact, it was verymuch an ad hoc affair with little planning involved.

13. Explain the significance of the glorious revolution in

British history.

It was also called the Revolution of 1688, and occasionally theBloodless Revolution. This critical event of 1688 is better described as

the invasion it undoubtedly was, rather than a ³revolution´.Parliament placed constitutionally significant legal and practicallimitations on the monarchy establishing the foundation of England¶sconstitutional monarchy.

In February 1689 William and Mary were proclaimed king and queenof England. The new co-monarchy of King William III and Queen MaryII accepted more constraints from Parliament than previousmonarchs had; and the new constitution created the expectation thatfuture monarchs would also remain constrained by Parliament.

The new balance of power between parliament and crown made thepromises of the English government more credible, and credibilityallowed the government to reorganise its finances through acollection of changes called the Financial Revolution.



14. Compare the role that religion played in the Stuart

and Tudor ages.

In the 16th century, there was a big change in the way someChristians worshipped God. Up until the 16th century most people

were Roman Catholic and the Pope in Rome was the head of church.In 1517, a German monk called Martin Luther led a breakaway fromthe Roman Catholic Church. The new Christians called themselves

µProtestants¶ because they were protesting against the Roman'Catholic' (meaning 'universal') Church, its teachings and its customs.

Their demand for reform led to this period of history being calledthe Reformation.

T u d o r B r i t a i n

People in Tudor times were very religious and were prepared to diefor their beliefs. It must have been very hard for them during the 118years the Tudor kings and Queens ruled because they were oftenforced to change their religion depending on the religion of thereigning monarch.

There were major changes in the church during the reign of the Tudorking and queens. England started as a Catholic country and ended upbeing a Protestant one under the Tudors.

15. Express your opinion about the Stuarts and their

policies in Britain.

UNIT 6, Politics, Society, Economy and culture in the

18th century

1. What drove English, Scots, Irish and Welsh men and

women to travel across the Atlantic?

For trade reasons, religion... Among the causes that made great Brit.Become a great empire were trade, which made money for Britishcompanies, politics, religion, ambition and adventure



2. Why did the puritans go to America and settle there?

Because they were escaping from religious persecution in theirhomeland, so that they could build new settlements, practice their

religion as they wanted, and found a colony based on their ownreligious ideals

3. What were the main reasons that intensified the

colonizing impulse?

In colonial America, land was plentiful and labour was scarce. Fromthe beginning, slavery was the basis of the British Empire in the WestIndies. Until the abolition of the slave trade, in 1807, Britain was

responsible for the transportation of a third of all the slaves that wereimported.

4. What was the primary motivation for emigration in the

New England colonies?

The permanent English settlement was established in 1607 inJamestown, Virginia, led by J. Smith and managed by the VirginiaCompany. This set the pattern for English colonisation.

Engl. Started a second round of colonising attempts using joint-stockcompanies to establish settlement.

When King James I granted the first charter, a council was formed inEngland, which issued instructions to the first settlers to appoint acolonial council, but as it proved to be ineffective, a governor, JohnDelaware was appointed.

The colony survived and started to ship tobacco to Engl. In 1614.This was its main export.

In 1620, the Mayflower landed in America, bringing Puritanseparatists who were escaping from religious persecution in theirhomeland, so they could build new settlements. These puritans laterbecame known as the Pilgrim Fathers.



5. Why did so many people pour in the colony of

Pennsylvania?

It was a good refuge for English Quakers

6. Why were the Scottish Highlanders repressed after the

Jacobite rebellions?

As a consequence of their support for the Jacobites, the Britishtreated the Scots cruelly. Many highlanders were killed or sent toAmerica and a law was passed that prohibited most of theirtraditions, such as wearing the kilt or playing the bagpipes

7. Who is regarded as the first British politician to haveheld the office of Prime Minister and how long did he

stay in power?

From 1714 to 1784, the Whigs were pre-eminent for 56 y.

Rob. Walpole, a Whig son of Norfolk landowners who developed theidea of the cabinet, that is to say, a group of ministers who metwithout the king and took the actual control of administration fromthe Crown. Walpole made sure that the powers of the king wouldalways be limited by the Constitution.

Walpole was in power for over 20y. Under Walpole, coal was minedextensively and cloth-making was a national industry

8. Why is the term Agricultural Revolution not really

precise?

It was a gradual process rather than a single event. Enclosuresimplied more effectively managed and cultivated land.

9. Why did the Methodists appeal to the working class?

Methodism was a religious movement which met the needs of thegrowing industrial working class. This movement encouraged peopleto experience Christ personally.



Methodism was identified the religious life of the lower and middleclasses. Wesley¶s talent for organising as well as inspiring the poormade him an outstanding figure of great interest. He wanted toconquer sin, not social deprivation. The poor were suitable cases fortreatment because they lacked the diversity of opportunity for sin,

which was available to the rich.

There is an argument that Methodism was indirectly responsible for agrowth in the self-confidence and capacity for organisation of workingpeople.

10. Which were the 4 main classes of people who lived

in eighteenth century towns?

Unskilled workers, skilled craftsman, wealthy merchants, andordinary traders and merchants

11. Write about the social repercussions of the

Methodist movement.

The transmission to working-class societies of forms of organisationwas peculiar to the Methodist connection.

Methodism demanded a transformation of human nature. Methodismprovided the impetus for that change. As a religion of the heart,Methodism could appeal to the simplest and least educated, soopening its doors to become the religion of the poor..

Methodism as a faith for the working classes was ideally suited to theneeds of middle-class utilitarianism. The Methodist was taught tobear his cross of poverty and humiliation; the cross was the patternof his obedience. Work was the cross, from which the transformedindustrial worker hung. Since salvation was never assured andtemptations lurked on every side, the was a constant inner goading

to ³sober and industrious´ behaviour, the outward sign of grace.Eternal damnation might be the consequence of indiscipline at work,and God was the most vigilant overseer of all. The utility of Methodism as a work-discipline is obvious, but Methodismsuccessfully performed a dual role as the religion of both theexploiters and the exploited because of indoctrination: the Methodists



inherited from Welsey the conviction that children were sinful, andthat their sinfulness had to be broken.

12. Reflect on the main consequences of the

Agricultural change and write them down.

It refers to a series of circumstances that produced an improvementin agriculture, a sustained improvement in crops, agriculturalmethods and output, that took place in the U.K during the 18 th and19th centuries.

During the 18th century there was a fast growth in population inBritain and Ireland. This population had to be fed which led toimprovements in the techniques and a change in the organisation of

farming and crops. This change of crops and better methods of farming led to a higher productivity enabling the population to be fed,and produced a shift of exces labour to the towns to work in the newindustries.

One of the processes that led to this change was the enclosure of themedieval common fields. This process had started in the 16 th centuryand became common in the 1740¶s. It was a mutually agreedarrangement between landowners and tenants, by which lands wereenclosed, parcelled and divided up.

13. Discuss the implications of the loss of the American

Colonies.

The loss of the 13 colonies in North America in 1783 after the war of independence deprived Britain from its most populous colonies andmarked the end of the ³1rst British Empire´. Despite this setback,.British rule continued in the Caribbean and in upper and lowerCanada. Following the defeat of Napoleonic France in 1815, Britain

enjoyed a century of dominance, and expanded its imperial holdingsacross the world. The loss of the American colonies is considered asthe event defining the transition between the ³first´ and ³second´ empires.

14. Describe the role women in XVIII century society.



During the eighteenth century, married women¶s lives revolved to alarge extent around managing the household, a role which in manycases included partnership in running farms or home businesses. Thedefiance of English rule and the onset of the war disrupted the usualpatterns of life in many ways including impacting how womenresponded to events surrounding them. While the essential role of most women continued to be managing all aspects of theirhouseholds, doing so took on political overtones: the commitment of the women was critical to maintaining the tea boycott and thedecision to boycott British goods caused home manufacturing tobecome both a statement of defiance and a necessity. Even thosewomen whose social standing afforded increased leisure took upspinning and other activities to replace imported goods. In the earlydays leading up to Lexington and Concord, they prepared food formilitia musters and made cartridges. War, when it came, touchedeveryone: resources were scarce leading to high inflation; invadingtroops destroyed farms and homes; and the absence of husbands and

fathers left some in danger of starvation. Some women were able tocontinue to manage homes, farms and shops but others were unableto survive on their own and forced to abandon their homes and followtheir husbands with the army.

Women who travelled with the army were known as campfollowersand did so for many reasons: inability to provide for themselves athome; fear of attack; eviction by troops; desire to be with husbands;the attraction of a paying job and rations (even if their pay andrations were minimal), or in some cases as sutlers selling to thearmy. Well over 20,000 women followed one army or another and

transformed camps into small towns. In some ways, women were animportant element because they carried out tasks such as launderingand nursing (both of which were paid) which men were unwilling todo and without which the army would have been even more seriouslydepleted by disease. In addition, women performed duties as cooks,food foragers, spies and water carriers (all unpaid). However, thenumber of women generally exceeded that which would have beenrequired and often represented a nuisance to commanding officers:women and accompanying children used scarce rations and slowedthe movement of the army. Nevertheless, they were toleratedbecause they performed important jobs for the welfare of the armies

and for fear that the men would desert if their families were senthome.

15. Write the main implications of the enclosure

system.



The enclosure movement restricted the ownership of public farmlandsspecifically to the wealthy landowners. As a result of this movement,there was an exodus of unemployed farm workers from the countryinto the cities, adding to the strength of Britain¶s work force.

UNIT 7, The nineteenth century

1. Why did the government change the political system in

1832?

Because the first Reform Bill expanded right to vote and restructuredrepresentation in Parliament

2. Were men and women equal in Victorian Britain?

No they weren¶t, since only men could vote in elections.

3. Did the Factory Acts solve the problems of children in

factories?

Not really

4. Why was the education act of 1870 considered very

important?

It set the framework for schooling of all children between ages 5 and12 in England and Wales. It was drafted by William Forster,a Liberal MP, and it was introduced on 17 February 1870 aftercampaigning by the National Education League, although not entirely

to their requirements.

5. What was the main consequence of the Act of Union of

1800 for Ireland?

The act of union abolished the parliament in Dublin, providing insteadfor Ireland to be represented at Westminster by 4 bishops and 28



peers in the house of Lords, and by 100 elected members in thehouse of commons. However, the result pleased no one and Dublindeclined in glamour and prosperity as estates in Ireland wereneglected and fell into decay due to absentee landlords.

The Catholics had the most to resent at the way things turned out.The ruling protestant minority was naturally opposed to the abolitionof the Dublin Parliament.

6. Why was the 1867 Reform Act so relevant?

It reduced the property qualification to the point where the urbanworking class became eligible to vote. With this act, the right to votewas given to every male adult householder living in the towns. Male

lodgers paying 10 p were also granted to vote. In all, the act gavethe vote to about 1.500.000 men. In effect, it enfranchised theworking classes in the towns.

7. What was Chartism?

It was a political organisation founded in 1838. It evolved intoBritain¶s first national working-class movement.

8. What was Queen Victoria¶s role in the political

realignment?

Victoria¶s role after the realignment was one of mediation betweendeparting and arriving prime ministers who were chosen by the partyin control of the House of Commons.

9. What were the dimensions of the British Empire during

the Victorian Era?

During the reign of Victoria, the empire doubled in size,encompassing Canada, Australia, India and various places in Africaand the South Pacific. Her reign was almost free of war, with an Irishuprising (1848), the Boer Wars in South Africa (1881, 1899-1902)and Indian rebellion (1857) being the only exceptions.



During the ³Victorian period´, Britain had a leading role as the firstindustrial nation and the pioneer railway transport. It was also animperial leadership, reflected by the importance of India as the mostsignificant colony of the century.

Queen Victoria refused any further influence from her domineeringmother and ruled in her own stead.

12. Summarize the main consequences of the Industrial

Revolution.

The Industrial Revolution was a period from the 18th to the 19th

century where major changes in agriculture, manufacturing, mining,

transportation, and technology had a profound effect on

the socioeconomic and cultural conditions of the times. It began inthe United Kingdom, then subsequently spread throughout Europe,

North America, and eventually the world.

The Industrial Revolution marks a major turning point in human

history; almost every aspect of daily life was influenced in some way.

Most notably, average income and population began to exhibit

unprecedented sustained growth. In the two centuries following 1800,

the world's average per capita income increased over 10 -fold, while

the world's population increased over 6-fold.[2] In the words of Nobel

Prize winning Robert E. Lucas, Jr., "For the first time in history, theliving standards of the masses of ordinary people have begun toundergo sustained growth. ... Nothing remotely like this economic

behaviour has happened before."[3]

Starting in the later part of the 18th century, there began a transition

in parts of Great Britain's previously manual labour and draft-animal±

based economy towards machine-based manufacturing. It startedwith the mechanisation of the textile industries, the development

of iron-making techniques and the increased use of refinedcoal.[4] Trade expansion was enabled by the introduction

of canals, improved roads and railways.[5]

The introduction of steam power fuelled primarily by coal, widerutilisation of water wheels and powered machinery (mainly in textile

manufacturing) underpinned the dramatic increases in production

capacity.[5] The development of all-metal machine tools in the first



two decades of the 19th century facilitated the manufacture of more

production machines for manufacturing in other industries.

13. Choose one city or town in England and research

the social conditions there during the Industrial

Revolution.

In the early 18th century, British textile manufacture was based

on wool which was processed by individual artisans, doing

the spinning and weaving on their own premises. This system is

called a cottage industry. Flax and cotton were also used for finematerials, but the processing was difficult because of the pre-

processing needed, and thus goods in these mat erials made only a

small proportion of the output.

Use of the spinning wheel and hand loom restricted the production

capacity of the industry, but incremental advances increasedproductivity to the extent that manufactured cotton goods became

the dominant British export by the early decades of the 19th century.

India was displaced as the premier supplier of cotton goods.

Lewis Paul patented the Roller Spinning machine and the flyer-and-

bobbin system for drawing wool to a more even thickness, developedwith the help of John Wyatt in Birmingham. Paul and Wyatt opened a

mill in Birmingham which used their new rolling machine powered bya donkey. In 1743, a factory was opened in Northampton with fifty

spindles on each of five of Paul and Wyatt's machines.

14. Reflect upon the consequences of the Act of

Union¶1800.

The act of union of 1800, effective from 1-1-1801, brought intoexistence a political entity called the United Kingdom of Great Britain

and Ireland.

Pitt succeeded in forcing this measure through the Parliaments of Westminster and Dublin. He thought that the Irish problem required,instead of a separate and independent Ireland, a full-scale unionbetween Ireland and Britain.



The Act of Union abolished the parliament in Dublin, providing insteadfor Ireland to be represented at Westminster by 4 bishops and 28peers in the House of Lords, and by 100 elected members in theHouse of Commons.

The Catholics had the most to resent at the way things turned out.The ruling protestant minority was naturally opposed to the abolitionof the Dublin Parliament. Pitt sidetracked their opposition by well-placed bribes and by winning the support of the catholic majority.This he achieved by means of a pledge which he ful ly intended tohonour, the promise of catholic emancipation, giving the communityfull equality of rights with the Anglo- Irish protestants.

The act of union was passed without any element of catholicemancipation being included, and Pitt resigned in February 1801when it became obvious that the king¶s opposition made it impossiblefor a subsequent bill to redress the omission. Pitt was out of office foronly three years, until the king recalled him in 1804 to continue thewar against Napoleon.

Catholic emancipation was brought back by Daniel O¶ Coell, anexperienced campaigner who had achieved prominence in 1800 forhis speeches in Dublin against the Act of Union. From 1823, heorganised a network of Catholic associations throughout Ireland todemand an end to discrimination.

In 1828, O¶Connell contested a by-election for the century of Clareand won the seat. The result put Catholic Ireland into a state of chaos.

The Emancipation Act was passed in 1829, removing nearly all thebarriers against Catholics holding public office. O¶Connell took his seatand became the leader of the Irish members and worked towards theachievement of his main aim, the repeal of the union of 1800.

The act of Union that was duly negotiated between Britain andIreland in 1800 again represented the continuation of the Englishparliament, but with less marginal adjustments in terms of politicalrepresentation to accommodate Irish interests.

15. Research one of the British possessions during its

empire in the XIX century and summarize its history.

(e.g: India)



In the wake of the Indian Mutiny (1857), the British crown assumedthe East India Company¶s governmental authority in India. Britain¶sacquisition of Burma (Myanmar) was completed in 1886, while itsconquest of the Punjab (1849) and of Baluchistan (1854-76) providedsubstantial new territory in the Indian subcontinent itself.

By the end of the 19th century, India remained the most significant of the imperial possessions, becoming known as ³ the jewel in thecrown´ of Queen Victoria. This status was emphasized in 1876 whenher prime minister, Disraeli, secured for her the title empress of India.

She became empress of India in 1878

UNIT 8 THE 19th CENTURY (II)

1. How did the railway change the lives of people in

Victorian Britain?

The railway is considered to be one of the greatest factors in thetransformation of Britain into an industrial nation. It is hard toconsider the scale of 19 th century development without the railway,due to its importance both on strategic and economic grounds. It

moved goods, foods and people faster than canals or horsedrawnwagons. There was a huge employment of people either on therailways themselves,, building new tracks or in goods deliveryservices.

The lives of millions were changed as, suddenly, the masses wereable to travel.

The railways opened up enormous opportunities and moved vastvolumes of freight and passengers in the 19th century.

2. How safe were the working conditions in Victorian

Britain?

Living conditions in cities became unsanitary and impoverished.Factories subjected men, women and even children workers at low



They were totally essential. Not only for the transport of people, butmostly for the transport of goods. Before railways, most heavy goodswere transported by barge (by canal or river).

Thanks to the trains, good could be transported more easily, to more

places, and amazingly faster.

8. Mention some of the inventions that shaped the Indus.

Rev

The steam engine is the basis of everything else. In practical terms,railway engines, boats, any factory machine...

9. How many people died as a consequence of the GreatFamine?

1 million.

10. How did the great Famine affect the emigration in

Ireland?

Many Irish people migrated. A large part of the Irish population lived

as impoverished tenant farmers, generally in debt to Britishlandlords. The need to survive on small plots of rented land createdthe perilous situation where vast numbers of people depended on thepotato crop for survival.

While the population of Europe rose during this period, populationgrowth in Ireland was particularly dramatic. Unlike Britain, Irelandlacked major industrial centres. Jobs were scarce

11.

Summarize the main consequences of the Indus.Rev.

The Indus. Rev. Is a term applied to the social and economic changesthat marked the transition from a stable agricultural and commercialsociety relying on complex machinery rather than tools. It meant thewidespread replacement of manual labour by new inventions ormachinery..



The Industrial Rev. Originated in Engl., and was manifested in aseries of technological and social innovations, which came about forseveral reasons. One most important starting points dates back tothe creation of the bank of Engl. In 1694.

The Industrial Rev. had a number of important consequences. Itchanged the face of nations, giving rise to urban centres requiringvast municipal services. It created a specialised and independenteconomic life and made the urban worker more completely dependenton the will of the employer than the rural worker had been. Relationsbetween capital and labour were aggravated, and there was socialunrest.

The Indus. Rev was a great turning point in the history of GreatBritain, which changed from a basically urban and industrial society.

12. Choose one technological innovation that took place

during the Indus. Rev and write about its importance

BoatsThe era of the steamboat began in America in 1787 when JohnFitch (1743-1798) made the first successful trial of a forty-five-footsteamboat on the Delaware River on August 22, 1787, in thepresence of members of the Constitutional Convention. Fitch laterbuilt a larger vessel that carried passengers and freight betweenPhiladelphia and Burlington, New Jersey

13. Chose one means of transport that was developed

during the industrial re. And discuss its importance

Railways

In early 1800s the Industrial Revolution needed quicker, cheapertransport. The Bridgewater Canal was already proving inadequate inthe Northwest. Earliest railways were simple wagons on wooden rails,used to carry coal, etc, short distances to rivers or coasts.

By 1810 there were about 300 miles of such µtrackways¶. First PublicRailway: 1801 Surrey Iron railway (horse-drawn). First steamlocomotive: 1804 (pulling coal at a mine) built by Trevithick. Georgeand Robert Stephenson were building similar (but improved)locomotives after 1814.



First steam powered railway: 1825 Stockton ± Darlington Railway,built by Stephensons for Edward Pease, businessman. Horses werealso used but it was proved that locomotives were more efficient.

1830 Liverpool ± Manchester line opened ± Stephensons asked to be

engineers and also asked to build the locomotives after the success of

their µRocket¶ at the Rainhill trials in 1829.

In 1841 Isambard Kingdom Brunel (shipbuilder) built the London toBristol Railway (the Great Western), using the 7 foot gauge toStephenson¶s 4 foot 8 1/2 inch gauge (width between rails). This wasstandardised to 4 foot 8 ½ after 1892. Railways became hugelypopular with passengers as well as greatly successful in movinggoods ± 1844 µcheap trains¶ Act said that companies should run a

certain number of cheap trains each day.

14. Discuss the main consequences of the great Famine

In the 19th century, especially in the late 1800¶s, hope for better lifeencouraged record emigration from Ireland.

While Irish peasants were forced to subsist on potatoes, other cropswere being grown in Ireland, and food was exported for market inEngl. And elsewhere. Beef cattle raised in Ireland were also exportedfor English tables.

The y of 1845 was a turning point in Ireland¶s history. Althoughfamine had been common in the 19 th century Ireland, the GreatFamine of 1845 has been considered the hardest one.

15. Write about working conditions for children at the

beginning of the Industrial Rev. And how they improved

during the 19th century.

Potatoes were very vulnerable to disease and no cure existed inIreland for the dreaded ³potato blight´, a fungus called PhytophthoraInfestans.

The summer of 1845 was mild but very wet and provided the perfectweather conditions for the blight to spread.



UNIT 9 The early 20th century

1. Of which party was David Lloyd a member?

Member of the Welsh Council of the RCGP since 1992.

2. How can the British government¶s economic policy in the

early years after the W. W 1 be described? After the 1rst

W.W, the U.K entered a period of decline, going through

a social, economic ans ideological crisis.

W.W 1 proved costly in terms of human lives and sacrifices andpeople expected to be rewarded with a better life afterwards. Theyexpected their soldiers to come back to a land fit hor heroes andinstead they could only offer them low wages and unemployment.

3. What was Labour Prime Minister James McDonald¶s

response to the declining economy at the beginning of

the depression?

He tried to avoid the issue by repeating the socialist argument thatthe capitalist system was the problem, and that as such, he could notbe expected to do anything about unemployment within the capitalistsystem. This statement was followed not long after by the dissolutionof the Labour government, and the beginning of the long y of thedepression.

However, the economy was not faltering everywhere in Britain. Somenew industries such as car manufacturing, rayon production andelectrical engineering were very successful. The problem was thatthey were concentrated in the Midlands and in some areas of SouthEast England, while there was virtually no presence of theseindustries in the north and in Wales, hit by the economic crisis.



4. How did women win the vote?

Since June, 1917, women became entitled to vote in the generalelection of 1918.

The law as seen as a success for women¶s suffrage, although it was a

restricted franchise, since women under 30 could not vote. Womenhad to wait until July 1928 to gain political equality with men.

5. How far did women¶s war efforts contribute to gaining

the vote in 1918?

They managed it in 1918, but it was a restricted franchise, sincewomen under 30 could not vote. Women had to wait until 2 nd July,1928 to gain political equality with men.

6. What contribution did women workers make in the first

W.W?

They kept the country and society functioning by doing, in addition tothe house wife and mother jobs, all the jobs men couldn¶t do causethey were at war.

7. Why is the Easter Rising considered a turning point in

Irish history?

It was a republic that was declared during the rebellion, and it meanta fracture in Irish politics between constitutionalism and militantism.

8. Which British Prime Minister was responsible for signing

the Munich Pact?

Chamberlain signed the Munich pact in 1938, granting Hitler theCzech Sudetenland to appease the dictator. The appeasement policyproved to be a failure, since soon Hitler showed his wish for a totalEuropean domination, to which the British had to reply with adeclaration of war. The path to W.W II lay clear.



9. Why did the Anglo- Irish Treaty arouse tensions among

the Irish?

A truce was signed between the IRA and the Irish on 11 July 1921,,and in December 1921, the terms of an Anglo -Irish Treaty between

the British government and the representatives of Dáil Éiream wereagreed, by which Britain accepted the claims of the Irish toindependence, but only in southern Ireland, while the six counties,which became the province of Northern Ireland or Ulster wouldremain united with Britain.

The ³new Irish free State´ accepted the sovereignty of the Britishcrown. The island was split into 2 parts. The 6 north- eastern countiesremained part of the U.K while the south was a dominium within theBritish Empire. The U.K was renamed ³The United Kingdom of GreatBritain and Northern Ireland´ to reflect the change. Besides, a councilof Ireland was set up to manage relations between the 2 Irish states.

The republicans who wanted the independence of all Ireland opposedthe Treaty.

10. What was the policy of appeasement?

The appeasement policy was the efforts by France and Britain in the1930s to allow Nazi Germany to have pretty much anything it wanted

in the hopes that eventually Hitler would be appeased and cease hisaggressive policies. thus they let him build up the german armedforces in contravention of the treaty of Versailles. They let him putGerman troops in the Rheinland violating the same treaty. They letannex Austria. They let him take the Sudetenland fromCzechoslovakia. Then they let him take the rest of Czechoslovakia.The affect of the policy was that each time Hitler was allowed to getaway with something, far from being appeased, it simply whetted hisappetite for more. Finally they realized he would never be appeasedand they would have to fight in order to stop him. Had they foughtseveral years earlier there would have been a far shorter and lessdestructive war.

Readmore: http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_was_the_appeasement_policy_and_how_did_it_affect_World_War_2#ixzz1BUB4mCIl



11. Could the women¶s Radical Suffrage have occurred

in any contry other than in the U.K?

Yes, in fact, in ended up happening in most countries.

12. Describe the political battle between the

Conservative and Labour Parties in Britain during the

inter-war years. What evidence is there of Labour¶s

impact on the generally Conservative British

government? What factors kept the Labour Party from

establishing and maintaining control over the

government?

13. Write key arguments in favour of the against British

women¶s suffrage.

The first country that offered women the franchise without limits andthe right to present as candidates in political elections was Australiain 1902. In the U.K, women acquired a limited right to vote 1918,and on the same terms as men in 1928.

In 1865, John Stuart Mill helped to found the first British woman

suffrage association and organised campaigns for the cause.

1903- Women¶s social and political union

14. Search for arguments for and against the view that

the first W.W was decisive for women in the U.K to gain

the vote.

During W.W 1, the women¶s suffrage movement suspended its

campaign, since most women suffragists and suffragettes volunteeredto help in the war effort. They did the jobs usually done by men inindustries key to the war, such as munitions factories and weaponmanufacturers, but they also worked on the buses and trams, onfarms, in hospitals and in offices. Thus, they contributed not only tothe war effort, but also to the running of the country. Women took onmen¶s jobs as they went off to fight in the war, so when most young



men were in the army, women were delivering the mail or driving thebusses. This gave women suffragists and suffragettes respect andadmiration, which had a favourable effect on public opinion.

15. Discuss the importance of the Declaration of

Independence in 1919.

Dáil Éiream made the Irish declaration of Independence, whichproclaimed Irish freedom and ratified the Republic of Ireland and thepower of the Irish parliament as the only organ responsible to makelaws on the people of Ireland. It was followed by the establishment of some de facto political organs. In its crucial line the declarationpronounced that ³... we, the elected representatives of the ancientIrish people in national Parliament assembled, do, in the name of the

Irish nation, ratify the establishment of the Irish Republic and pledgeourselves and our people to make this declaration effective by everymeans at our command´

The 1rst elections of the Northern Ireland parliament were held inMay 1921 and the Unionists got 40 of the 52 seats. The Parliamentfirst met in Belfast, June 1921, The new northern Ireland primeminister was the Ulster unionist leader, Sr James Craig.

UNIT 10: 1950-2000

1. In which decades was the British Empire gradually

transformed?

The major change of the Empire was that Britain pulled out of thecolonies and created the Commonwealth instead that includescountries such as Australia, New Zealand...

2. What was the aim of the rise of the comprehensive

school?

It had a double purpose: -to raise the cultural level of the population



-Abolish social differences by allowing youngsters from anunprivileged background to get to higher education

3. When did Britain enter the European Community?

In 1973, Edward Health achieved his long-held ambition to leadBritain into the European Community after many y of campaigning onEuropean issues. E. Health finally achieved British membership and in1973, Britain entered the European common market, now Europeancommunity (EEC). Health remained Prime Minister until 1974.

Economically, the era was characterized by numerous strikes andrestrictive practises

4. What did the miners achieve after the 1984-5 strike?

It was Margaret Thatcher¶s most serious union confrontation, but theminers returned to work without achieving any settlement. As MsThatcher intended, this event was a turning point in the progressiveloss of power of the unions in Britain.

5. Which plan set out the Good Friday Agreement?

Blair¶s original programme placed a time limit on the talks, insistingthat a package be agreed by May 1998 as the basis for a referendum.In Belfast, 10th April, 1998, both governments and the relevantpolitical parties formally agreed to the holding of a referendum alonglines close to those jointly proposed by Blair and Ahern.

The Agreement was reached and signed in Belfast on Friday, April10th by the British and Irish Governments and endorsed by most

Northern Ireland political parties. It was also overwhelminglyendorsed by the people of Ireland, north and south, in referenda heldsimultaneously on 22 May 1998.

The Agreement reached at the conclusion of the Multi-Partynegotiations altered the context in which the government¶s objectiveswith regard to Northern Ireland and Anglo-Irish relations werepursued.



The referendum took place in May 1998. A 94% vote in the republicsupported the Good Friday Agreement and the proposed change inthe constitution. In Northern Ireland 71% voted for agreement

6. What did the Race Relations Act in 1965 ban?

In 1965, Britain enacted the Race Relations act, which prohibiteddiscrimination on the basis of race in public places such asrestaurants and on public transportation. The scope of theprohibitions was expanded in amendments made in 1968 and 1976.

In the 1991 census, Britain¶s ethnic minorities numbered some 3million, or about 5.5% of the population. The black communityconsisted of 500.00 of Caribbean origin and 380.000 deriving from

Africa and elsewhere. The Asian groups included 825.000 Indians,500.00 Pakistanis, 165.000 Bangladeshis and 165.000 Chinese.

Notably, fish and chips have been overtaken by curry as t he mostpopular British takeaway.

In the XXI century, Britain is a more open, more multi-racial societythan ever before.

7. What is the meaning of ³new labour´?

Blair transformed the Labour party into what he called new Labour,which came to mean a party with streamlined campaigning systems,strong centralised control and a resolute determination to win thevote of ³ Middle England´ or the middle classes.

8. Why can we refer to the sixties as a time of Cultural

Revolution?

The 60¶s were like a magical decade. It started as a prolongation of the 50¶s youth rebelliousness. Symbolised by the film ³Rebel withouta cause´ J.Dean.

Engl. Produced an outcast of creation in many fields; music, poetrytheatre..



There was a real explosion of creation. During those y. Youth tendedto drink beer and take speed.

The 60¶s was a time of great social and cultural change that wenthand in hand with an explosion in the creative arts.

9. Why was Margaret Thatcher called the ³Iron Lady´?

Thatcher was the first woman to become prime minister. She serveduntil 1900 and was, the longest serving prime minister in 150 y. Thenew conservative government under Thatcher supported a regime of conservative policy making, by reducing the government borrowing ,freezing expenditure and privatising state-owned industries.

Thatcher¶s victory in the general election heralded a sea change in

Britain, replacing the old mood of consensus with the aggressivelyadversarial stance described as ³conviction´ politics.

Thatcher managed to break union resistance through a series of lawsthat included the banning of sympathy strikes and boycotts.

Because she was very strict. She organised an amazing expedition tothe Islas Maldives to fight the Argentineans, cause they claimed theisles were theirs.

By the late 1980¶s, Thatcher kept using her apparent sense of invincible power, which led to her being called the Iron Lady, to pushthrough her policies

10. Which international issue made Tony Blair lose

popular support?

Following the devastating Sept, 11, 2001, terrorist attacks in theUSA, the British government became the most visible internationalsupporter of the Bush administration in its war on terrorism.Government officials visited Muslim nations to seek their participationin the campaign, and British forces joined the Americans in launchingattacks against Afghanistan after the Taliban government refused tohand over Osama Bin Laden. The Blair government was also a strongsupporter of the United States µposition that military action should betaken against Iraq if United Nations weapons inspections were not



resumed under new, stricter conditions, and committed British forcesto the U.S led invasion of Iraq, in March 2003.

Blair¶s strong support for the invasion, and the failure to find anyweapons of mass destruction in Iraq, were factors in Labour¶s third-

place finish in the June, 2004, local elections; the results reflected theBritish public dissatisfaction with the country¶s evolvement in Iraq.

11. Reflect upon the Northern Ireland peace process.

The majority of the population was unionist and wished to remainpart of the U.K, but a significant minority, known as the nationalists,wanted a united Ireland.

The political parties in Northern Ireland generally reflect the sectarian

divide. On the Protestant side there are two main parties; the officialunionists (heirs of the old unionist party (SDLP) has consistentlywaged a non-violent, democratic campaign for a united Ireland andfor reconciliation between the two communities. Sinn Fein has closelinks with the IRA, and has never condemned its terrorist activities.

12. Research the history of the Commonwealth and the

consequences for Great Britain.

It was born as a consequence of colonisation. Many ex-coloniesbecame members of the Commonwealth.

It had secured trade and cultural partners. It has meant an influx of the Commonwealth countries

13. Describe the main ethnic minorities that make up

Multicultural Britain and consider if they are really

integrated

Asians (Indians, pakis, Chinese...) west Indians

At the turn of the century, GB and Ireland were viewed asincreasingly multicultural societies. Focusing on the case of GB,it isnoticeable that they are cities such as London that are regarded as amicro multicultural society within multicultural Britain. In London wewill find Irish, Pakistani, Indian, Bangladeshi, Caribbean...



Most colonies were granted immigration after the 2nd W.W and thenBritain encouraged immigration from the former colonies to deal withthe labour market.

In the spring of 1948, the government placed advertisements in

Jamaica, inviting immigrants to make the journey across the Atlantic,a journey made in the other direction, many generations earlier, bytheir ancestors in slave ships.

The arrival of the West Indians transformed Britain into a multiracialsociety. There was yet little religious diversity because the newimmigrants were nearly all Christians. At this stage, only one longestablished British group differed from the majority in both race andreligion. The Jews, welcomed in Britain from the 1650¶s, andimmigrating in large numbers in the late 19th and early 20th century,were a settled community.

Hindus and Sikhs arrived from the republic of India, and Hindus alsocame from East Africa, after Uganda¶s Indian population was expelledin 1972. Muslims came from Pakistan and Bangladesh.

Hard predictions were made about the effect of these new arrivals onBritish society, and tension led to a few race riots. However, in thelonger term, many people with differing cultures have successfullyintegrated into the country, and some have risen to high positions.

14. Discuss the consequence of British participation in

the Iraq war.

Terrorist bombing attacks in the tub of London. The Islamicsupporters of the Jihad started having Britain as a target to aim at(enemies).

On July, 7, 2005, London suffered 4 coordinated bombing on itsunderground and bus system, which killed more than 50 people and

injured some 700. The attacks, which broadly resembled the March2004, bombings in Madrid, appeared to be the work of Islamic suicidebombers; 3 of the suspected ones were born in Britain. Evidenceuncovered by the British police indicated that the attacks may havebeen directed by a member of Al Qaeda. A second set of suicidebombings was attempted later in the month, but the bombs failed todetonate.

History Preguntas y Respuestas

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